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USGS2016

Defining the next generation modeling of coastal ecotone dynamics in response to global change

Coastal ecosystems are especially vulnerable to global change; e.g., sea level rise (SLR) and extreme events. Over the past century, global change has resulted in salt-tolerant (halophytic) plant species migrating into upland salt-intolerant (glycophytic) dominated habitats along major rivers and large wetland expanses along the coast. While habitat transitions can be abrupt, modeling the specific drivers of abrupt change between halophytic and glycophytic vegetation is not a simple task. Correlative studies, which dominate the literature, are unlikely to establish ultimate causation for habitat shifts, and do not generate strong predictive capacity for coastal land managers and climate change adaptation exercises. In this paper, we first review possible drivers of ecotone shifts for coastal wetlands, our understanding of which has expanded rapidly in recent years. Any exogenous factor that increases growth or establishment of halophytic species will favor the ecotone boundary moving upslope. However, internal feedbacks between vegetation and the environment, through which vegetation modifies the local microhabitat (e.g., by changing salinity or surface elevation), can either help the system become resilient to future changes or strengthen ecotone migration. Following this idea, we review a succession of models that have provided progressively better insight into the relative importance of internal positive feedbacks versus external environmental factors. We end with developing a theoretical model to show that both abrupt environmental gradients and internal positive feedbacks can generate the sharp ecotonal boundaries that we commonly see, and we demonstrate that the responses to gradual global change (e.g., SLR) can be quite diverse.

Ecological Modelling↗

USGS2009

Maintaining the competitiveness of the American Fisheries Society journals: An assessment based on influence and cost-effectiveness

Recent changes in the landscape of scientific publishing prompted the Publications Overview Committee of the American Fisheries Society (AFS) to review the Society's portfolio of scientific journals. We evaluated journals based on metrics in two categories: (1) citation-based measures of the influence of a journal on the scientific literature, and (2) measures of the cost-effectiveness of a journal (citation rate adjusted for subscription cost). Over the long-term, we found that ecology journals had far stronger citation-based influence than fisheries and aquatic sciences journals, and that journals publishing primarily basic research had stronger influence than journals publishing applied research (including four AFS journals and Fisheries magazine). In evaluating the current status of fisheries and aquatic sciences journals, we found that metrics of influence and cost-effectiveness provided considerably different portrayals of journals relative to their peers. In terms of citation-based influence, we found that the AFS journal Transactions of the American Fisheries Society (TAFS) and Fisheries magazine were competitive with highly regarded peer fisheries journals, but that North American Journal of Aquaculture (NAJA) and Journal of Aquatic Animal Health (JAAH) were less influential than their peers. The citation-based influence of North American Journal of Fisheries Management (NAJFM) was intermediate between TAFS/Fisheries and NAJA/JAAH . For journals like NAJFM and NAJA , we expect that much of the scientific influence on policy and management is not captured by citations in the primary literature, and alternative methods of evaluation may be needed. All of the AFS journals ranked highly with regard to cost-effectiveness because their subscription costs are low, and these rankings are in accordance with membership needs and the strategic mission of AFS to provide broad and timely dissemination of scientific information. We conclude by suggesting ways to increase the influence of AFS journals without compromising their accessibility and affordability, and offer advice about methods and frequency for future journal evaluations.

Fisheries↗

USGS1999

Poisoning of raptors with organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides with emphasis on Canada, U.S. and U.K.

We reviewed cases of raptor mortality resulting from cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides. We compiled records from the U.S., U.K. and Canada for the period 1985-95 (520 incidents) and surveyed the relevant literature to identify the main routes of exposure and those products that led to the greatest number of poisoning cases. A high proportion of cases in the U.K. resulted from abusive uses of pesticides (willful poisoning). The proportion was smaller in North America where problems with labeled uses of pesticides were as frequent as abuse cases. Poisoning resulting from labeled use was possible with a large number of granular pesticides and some seed treatments through secondary poisoning or through the ingestion of contaminated invertebrates, notably earthworms. With the more toxic products, residue levels in freshly-sprayed insects were high enough to cause mortality. The use of organophosphorus products as avicides and for the topical treatment of livestock appeared to be common routes of intoxication. The use of insecticides in dormant oils also gave rise to exposure that can be lethal or which can debilitate birds and increase their vulnerability. A few pesticides of high toxicity were responsible for the bulk of poisoning cases. Based on limited information, raptors appeared to be more sensitive than other bird species to organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides. Some of the more significant risk factors that resulted in raptor poisonings were: insectivory and vermivory; opportunistic taking of debilitated prey; scavenging, especially if the gastrointestinal tracts are consumed; presence in agricultural areas; perceived status as pest species; and flocking or other gregarious behavior at some part of their life cycle. Lethal or sublethal poisoning should always be considered in the diagnosis of dead or debilitated raptors even when another diagnosis (e.g., electrocution, car or building strike) is apparent. Many cases of poisoning are not currently diagnosed as such and, even when diagnosed, the information is often not made available to regulatory authorities. The importance of pesticide intoxications relative to other sources of mortality is highly variable in time and place; on a regional level, the increased mortality of raptors resulting from cholinesterase-inhibiting pesticides can be significant, especially in the case of rare species.

Journal of Raptor Research↗

USGS1991

[Book review] Birds of Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, Oregon

Although John Warham has worked for at least 40 years on procellariids, this book is much more than just a summary of a distinguished research career. It is a useful synthesis of the vast and often obscure literature on the more than 100 species of shearwaters, petrels, albatrosses, and fulmars that comprise the avian order with the widest range of body mass (19.5 g to 8.7 kg) and widest distribution, throughout the world's oceans, from the tropics to open leads in polar ice packs. The order's literary credentials are also impressive, with contributions from Dionysus (200 AD), St. Augustine, and Cole- ridge (not cited). Warham has also unearthed useful references from journals not examined by many ornithologists, such as Bocagiana , Il-Merill , and the Journal of the Manx Museum . He also appears to have done a good job of covering the Japanese-language literature.

The Auk↗

USGS2011

On the terminology of the spectral vegetation index (NIR – SWIR)/(NIR + SWIR)

The spectral vegetation index (ρNIR – ρSWIR)/(ρNIR + ρSWIR), where ρNIR and ρSWIR are the near-infrared (NIR) and shortwave-infrared (SWIR) reflectances, respectively, has been widely used to indicate vegetation moisture condition. This index has multiple names in the literature, including infrared index (II), normalized difference infrared index (NDII), normalized difference water index (NDWI), normalized difference moisture index (NDMI), land surface water index (LSWI), and normalized burn ratio (NBR), etc. After reviewing each term’s definition, associated sensors, and channel specifications, we found that the index consists of three variants, differing only in the SWIR region (1.2–1.3 µm, 1.55–1.75 µm, or 2.05–2.45 µm). Thus, three terms are sufficient to represent these three SWIR variants; other names are redundant and therefore unnecessary. Considering the spectral representativeness, the term’s popularity, and the “rule of priority” in scientific nomenclature, NDWI, NDII, and NBR, each corresponding to the three SWIR regions, are more preferable terms.

International Journal of Remote Sensing↗

USGS2018

Integrating adaptive management and ecosystem services concepts to improve natural resource management: Challenges and opportunities

Executive Summary—Overview Natural resource managers must make decisions that affect broad-scale ecosystem processes involving large spatial areas, complex biophysical interactions, numerous competing stakeholder interests, and highly uncertain outcomes. Natural and social science information and analyses are widely recognized as important for informing effective management. Chief among the systematic approaches for improving the integration of science into natural resource management are two emergent science concepts, adaptive management and ecosystem services. Adaptive management (also referred to as “adaptive decision making”) is a deliberate process of learning by doing that focuses on reducing uncertainties about management outcomes and system responses to improve management over time. Ecosystem services is a conceptual framework that refers to the attributes and outputs of ecosystems (and their components and functions) that have value for humans. This report explores how ecosystem services can be moved from concept into practice through connection to a decision framework—adaptive management—that accounts for inherent uncertainties. Simultaneously, the report examines the value of incorporating ecosystem services framing and concepts into adaptive management efforts. Adaptive management and ecosystem services analyses have not typically been used jointly in decision making. However, as frameworks, they have a natural—but to date underexplored—affinity. Both are policy and decision oriented in that they attempt to represent the consequences of resource management choices on outcomes of interest to stakeholders. Both adaptive management and ecosystem services analysis take an empirical approach to the analysis of ecological systems. This systems orientation is a byproduct of the fact that natural resource actions affect ecosystems—and corresponding societal outcomes—often across large geographic scales. Moreover, because both frameworks focus on resource systems, both must confront the analytical challenges of systems modeling—in terms of complexity, dynamics, and uncertainty. Given this affinity, the integration of ecosystem services analysis and adaptive management poses few conceptual hurdles. In this report, we synthesize discussions from two workshops that considered ways in which adaptive management approaches and ecosystem service concepts may be complementary, such that integrating them into a common framework may lead to improved natural resource management outcomes. Although the literature on adaptive management and ecosystem services is vast and growing, the report focuses specifically on the integration of these two concepts rather than aiming to provide new definitions or an indepth review or primer of the concepts individually. Key issues considered include the bidirectional links between adaptive decision making and ecosystem services, as well as the potential benefits and inevitable challenges arising in the development and use of an integrated framework. Specifically, the workshops addressed the following questions: How can application of ecosystem service analysis within an adaptive decision process improve the outcomes of management and advance understanding of ecosystem service identification, production, and valuation? How can these concepts be integrated in concept and practice? What are the constraints and challenges to integrating adaptive management and ecosystem services? And, should the integration of these concepts be moved forward to wider application—and if so, how?

Circular↗

USGS1998

Assessment of ground-water vulnerability to atrazine leaching in Kent County, Michigan; review, comparison of results of other studies and verification

Model assumptions and parameters used in an earlier study of the vulnerability of ground water in Kent County, Michigan, to atrazine contamination were reviewed and compared with other studies. The review indicated that model assumptions are consistent with those used in other models and that the parameters assigned in the Kent County model are within the broad range commonly found in the literature. Model assumptions most likely to limit the accuracy of the previous study include those of uniform transport and steady-state flow. Simulation results are more sensitive to parameter estimates for atrazine half life, organic-carbon content, and organic-carbon partition coefficient than to other model parameters. Potential atrazine detection probabilities and concentrations of atrazine reported in the previous Kent County Study were compared with data from other studies. Detection probabilities of 14 measurements of atrazine concentrations in ground water from shallow wells in the southern Lower Peninsula of Michigan were compared with detection probabilities based on potential atrazine concentrations computed for Kent County. Results indicate that the distribution of detection probabilities based on measured concentrations is similar to that based on adjusted potential concentrations. Potential concentrations were adjusted for effects of differences between sampling and modeling depths and for differences between the uniform application rate used for potential concentrations and the percentage of Kent County that is likely to be treated with atrazine. Potential concentrations of atrazine in the Kent County Study were within the wide range of concentrations measured in other states. A stratified random sampling strategy was developed to verify expected atrazine concentrations in ground water within Kent County. The strategy helps identify strata, determine the optimum allocation of ground-water samples within defined strata, and project the sampling error. Implementation of the strategy was illustrated by use of potential atrazine concentrations computed in the previous Kent County Study. Once detailed information on historical application rates of atrazine is developed, expected atrazine concentrations can be computed by use of the vulnerability model and used to implement the sampling strategy. Sampling results may be used to verify the effectiveness of the vulnerability model and local estimates of historical atrazine application rates by use of analysis of variance.

Michigan↗

USGS1995

Landscape change and its effects on the wintering range of a lesser snow goose Chen caerulescens caerulescens population: A review

The Texas coast has experienced considerable urban, industrial, and agricultural growth during the 20th Century. The region provides important wintering habitat to many avian species, including lesser snow geese Chen caerulescens caerulescens . This paper draws the biological and ecological fields into an historical perspective by examining available literature on the development of the upper Texas coast and range changes of lesser snow geese. Historically, lesser snow geese wintered in the coastal marshes, but expanded their range into the adjacent prairies in the mid-1900s. Winter range expansion was negatively affected by urban and industrial encroachment in the coastal marshes and positively influenced by agricultural development in the prairies, which increased dramatically during World War II. The lesser snow goose population flourished alongside some human-induced landscape alterations. However, projected declines in agriculture and increased urbanization of prairie and coastal marsh habitats may result in significant negative effects on the lesser snow goose population.

Texas↗

USGS2003

[Book Review] Biology of marine birds

A text devoted to the biology and ecology of marine birds has not been published in the last 15 years. Although a number of more taxa-specific texts have been produced during that period, there has not been a single publication that attempted to review our knowledge of all the major seabird orders since the works of Nelson (1979), Croxall (1987), and Furness and Monaghan (1987). Following the publication of those works, a large and impressive body of literature has been produced. Given the rapid expansion of the field in the last two decades, the time was ripe for production of an extensive compendium on the biology, ecology, and conservation of the world's seabirds. E. A. Schreiber and J. Burger are editors of this CRC publication, Biology of Marine Birds . The book consists of 19 chapters that vary in length from 15 to 51 pages. There are also two extensive appendices: (1) a list of seabird species (restricted to the orders Sphenisciformes, Procellariiformes, Pelecaniformes, and Charadriiformes, the latter limited to Stercorariidae, Laridae, Rhynchopidae, and Alcidae) and their IUCN status, and (2) a very useful table of species-specific life-history traits. The 19 chapters were prepared by 26 authors, among them some of the most respected and published seabird scientists in the world. A brief preface introduces the book, its objective (to provide an examination and summary of the research on seabirds), its audience (researchers, conservationists, managers, and policy-makers), and the taxa covered. The editors coauthored the introductory chapter, Seabirds in the Marine Environment. The authors describe distinctive characteristics of seabird life-histories in comparison to other taxa, hypotheses for why those lifestyles evolved and the potential role of energy limitation in the evolution of seabird life-histories. Along with a discussion of other common seabird traits, such as a propensity for colonial breeding, the authors also suggest directions for future research in seabird ecology.

The Auk↗

USGS2026

Methods and considerations for writing science syntheses for use in decision making on public lands

Natural resource managers are required by multiple laws to use science to inform decisions on public lands in the United States. However, large numbers of science papers about conservation and management of natural resources are published annually, increasing the amount of effort required to maintain awareness of the best available science on relevant topics. As a result, products that synthesize large bodies of science can be a key tool for communicating science to natural resource managers. This report provides guidance for writing synthesis products for resource managers. Core topics and steps include coproducing syntheses with managers, scoping topics relevant to management actions and potentially affected resources, using reproducible literature search and screening methods, extracting and synthesizing multiple types of management-relevant information from science papers, organizing the synthesis product according to decision-making processes, soliciting peer and end-user review, and planning dissemination activities tailored to resource managers. Considering these topics and steps in developing science synthesis products can facilitate natural resource managers’ ability to use science in decision making and help bridge the gap between research and public land management.

Techniques and Methods↗

USGS2001

Geochemical constraints on the origin of the Sterling Hill and Franklin zinc deposits, and the furnace magnetite bed, northwestern New Jersey

T he p urpose of this chapter is to review two aspects of the geochemistry of the Sterling Hill and Franklin zinc-ironmanganese deposits and the Furnace magnetite bed that underlies the Franklin deposit. These are (1) oxidation and sulfidation states determined from heterogeneous phase equilibria, and (2) stable isotopic compositions determined from analyses of carbonate, silicate, oxide, and sulfide minerals. The data place constraints on the genesis of the ores, which is the topic of the final section of the chapter. This review draws heavily from the results of my own dissertation research on Sterling Hill (Johnson, 1990; Johnson et al., 1990a) and from recent and continuing projects (Johnson et al., 1990b, Johnson, 1994, 1996, 1997; Volkert et al., 2000); it also includes the sulfur isotope results obtained by Ault (1957). For a complete review of the geology of the deposits, the reader is referred to the chapter by Metsger (2001), and to Metsger et al. (1958) and Frondel and Baum (1974). A complete catalog of the extensive literature on the deposits is given by Dunn (1995).

New Jersey↗

USGS2012

Book review: Earthquakes and water

It is really nice to see assembled in one place a discussion of the documented and hypothesized hydrologic effects of earthquakes. The book is divided into chapters focusing on particular hydrologic phenomena including liquefaction, mud volcanism, stream discharge increases, groundwater level, temperature and chemical changes, and geyser period changes. These hydrologic effects are inherently fascinating, and the large number of relevant publications in the past decade makes this summary a useful milepost. The book also covers hydrologic precursors and earthquake triggering by pore pressure. A natural need to limit the topics covered resulted in the omission of tsunamis and the vast literature on the role of fluids and pore pressure in frictional strength of faults. Regardless of whether research on earthquake-triggered hydrologic effects ultimately provides insight into the physics of earthquakes, the text provides welcome common ground for interdisciplinary collaborations between hydrologists and seismologists. Such collaborations continue to be crucial for investigating hypotheses about the role of fluids in earthquakes and slow slip. Review info: Earthquakes and Water. By Wang, C.-Y. and Manga, M., 2010. ISBN: 9783642008092, 218 pp.

Geofluids↗

USGS2009

Diffusion-equation representations of landform evolution in the simplest circumstances: Appendix C

The diffusion equation is one of the three great partial differential equations of classical physics. It describes the flow or diffusion of heat in the presence of temperature gradients, fluid flow in porous media in the presence of pressure gradients, and the diffusion of molecules in the presence of chemical gradients. [The other two equations are the wave equation, which describes the propagation of electromagnetic waves (including light), acoustic (sound) waves, and elastic (seismic) waves radiated from earthquakes; and LaPlace’s equation, which describes the behavior of electric, gravitational, and fluid potentials, all part of potential field theory. The diffusion equation reduces to LaPlace’s equation at steady state, when the field of interest does not depend on t. Poisson’s equation is LaPlace’s equation with a source term.] Joseph Fourier developed the diffusion equation for heat conduction in 1807, and it has significant associations with probability theory (Narasimhan, 2009), as we will see shortly. In a novel and fascinating application, Gene Humphreys has employed solutions of the diffusion equation to describe the density of desert tortoises in the presence of population gradients caused by new dirt roads cut in the Mojave Desert. These new dirt roads induce an immediate line sink for unsuspecting tortoises. As of this writing in early September, I am not sure whether Gene has published this work. Most of us here know that the diffusion equation has also been used to describe the evolution through time of scarp-like landforms, including fault scarps, shoreline scarps, or a set of marine terraces. The methods, models, and data employed in such studies have been described in the literature many times over the past 25 years. For most situations, everything you will ever need (or want) to know can be found in Hanks et al. (1984) and Hanks (2000), the latter being a review of numerous studies of the 1980s and 1990s and a summary of available estimates of the mass diffusivity κ. The geometric parameterization of scarp-like landforms is shown in Figure 1.

Book↗

USGS2024

Mass-balance-consistent geological stock accounting: A new approach toward sustainable management of mineral resources

Global resource extraction raises concerns about environmental pressures and the security of mineral supply. Strategies to address these concerns depend on robust information on natural resource endowments, and on suitable methods to monitor and model their changes over time. However, current mineral resources and reserves reporting and accounting workflows are poorly suited for addressing mineral depletion or answering questions about the long-term sustainable supply. Our integrative review finds that the lack of a robust theoretical concept and framework for mass-balance (MB)-consistent geological stock accounting hinders systematic industry-government data integration, resource governance, and strategy development. We evaluate the existing literature on geological stock accounting, identify shortcomings of current monitoring of mine production, and outline a conceptual framework for MB-consistent system integration based on material flow analysis (MFA). Our synthesis shows that recent developments in Earth observation, geoinformation management, and sustainability reporting act as catalysts that make MB-consistent geological stock accounting increasingly feasible. We propose first steps for its implementation and anticipate that our perspective as “resource realists” will facilitate the integration of geological and anthropogenic material systems, help secure future mineral supply, and support the global sustainability transition.

Environmental Science and Technology↗

USGS2024

Refuge identification as a climate adaptation strategy to promote fish persistence during drought

Climate change is leading to global increases in extreme events, such as drought, that threaten the persistence of freshwater biodiversity. Identification and management of drought refuges, areas that promote resistance and resilience to drought, will be critical for preserving and recovering aquatic biodiversity in the face of climate change and increasing human water use. Although several reviews have addressed the effects of droughts and highlighted the role of refuges, a need remains on how to identify functional refuges that can be used in a drought management framework to support fish assemblages. We synthesize literature on drought refuges and propose a framework to identify and manage functional refuges that incorporate species physiological tolerances, behaviours and life-history strategies. Stream pools, perennial reaches and off-channel habitat were identified as important drought refuges for fish. The ability of refuges to improve species resistance and resilience to drought requires careful consideration of the biology of the target species and targeted management to promote persistence, quality and connectivity of refuges. Case studies illustrate that management of drought refuges can be challenging because of competing demands for water, incomplete knowledge of ecological requirements for target species and the increasing occurrence of multi-year droughts. Climate adaptation is increasingly important, and drought refuges can increase fish resistance and resilience to climate-related drought across the riverscape.

Fish and Fisheries↗

USGS2017

Ecology of the macrophyte Podostemum ceratophyllum Michx. (Hornleaf riverweed), a widespread foundation species of eastern North American rivers

Podostemum ceratophyllum , commonly called Hornleaf Riverweed, occurs in mid-order montane and piedmont rivers of eastern North America, where the plant grows submerged and attached to rocks and stable substrates in swift, aerated water. Multiple studies, mostly conducted in the southern portions of the plant’s range, have shown that Podostemum can variously influence benthic communities in flowing waters. However, a synthetic review of the biology and ecology of the plant is needed to inform conservation, particularly because P. ceratophyllum is reported to be in decline in much of its range, for mostly unknown reasons. We have thus summarized the literature showing that Podostemum provides substantial habitat for invertebrates and fish, may be consumed by invertebrates, turtles, and other vertebrates, removes and sequesters dissolved elements (i.e., nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, zinc, etc.) from the water column, and contributes organic matter to the detrital pool. Podostemum may be tolerant to some forms of pollution but appears vulnerable to sedimentation, epiphytic over-growth, and hydrologic changes that result in desiccation, and possibly increased herbivory pressure. Much remains unknown about Podostemum , including aspects of morphological variation, seed dispersal, and tolerance to changes in temperature and water chemistry. Nonetheless, Podostemum may be considered a foundation species, whose loss from eastern North American rivers is likely to affect higher trophic levels and ecosystem processes.

Aquatic Botany↗

USGS1958

Rate for flood insurance

Soon after the 1951 floods on the Kansas and lower Missouri Rivers, President Truman submitted to Congress (82d Cong., 1st sess., 1951) a proposal for a national flood insurance fund. Although the proposal was not acted upon by the 82d Congree, there was considerable discussion of it in the press and in the technical literature. Among the latter were papers by Langbein (1953), Foster (1954), and by the Insurance Executive Association (1952). The paper by Langbein discussed flood insurance as a means of promoting wise use of the flood plain. Foster's paper reviewed his work for the Insurance Executive Association without, however, reaching any independent decision as to the workability of hydrologic techniques in an insurance program. The report of the Insurance Executive Association presented mainly the industries viewpoint that flood insurance is not feasible. It is interesting to note, however, that in a recent report McGuinness (1957), of the Allstate Insurance Co., says "This position has been taken without recourse to actuarial or statistical methods which might be used to fit an insurance company's underwriting retentions to the exposures it would meet."

Open-File Report↗

USGS2015

Groundwater: The disregarded component in lake water and nutrient budgets, Part 1: Effects of groundwater on hydrology

Lake eutrophication is a large and growing problem in many parts of the world, commonly due to anthropogenic sources of nutrients. Improved quantification of nutrient inputs is required to address this problem, including better determination of exchanges between groundwater and lakes. This first of a two-part review provides a brief history of the evolution of the study of groundwater exchange with lakes, followed by a listing of the most commonly used methods for quantifying this exchange. Rates of exchange between lakes and groundwater compiled from the literature are statistically summarized for both exfiltration (flow from groundwater to a lake) and infiltration (flow from a lake to groundwater), including per cent contribution of groundwater to lake-water budgets. Reported rates of exchange between groundwater and lakes span more than five orders of magnitude. Median exfiltration is 0.74 cm/day, and median infiltration is 0.60 cm/day. Exfiltration ranges from near 0% to 94% of input terms in lake-water budgets, and infiltration ranges from near 0% to 91% of loss terms. Median values for exfiltration and infiltration as percentages of input and loss terms of lake-water budgets are 25% and 35%, respectively. Quantification of the groundwater term is somewhat method dependent, indicating that calculating the groundwater component with multiple methods can provide a better understanding of the accuracy of estimates. The importance of exfiltration to a lake budget ranges widely for lakes less than about 100 ha in area but generally decreases with increasing lake area, particularly for lakes that exceed 100 ha in area. No such relation is evident for lakes where infiltration occurs, perhaps because of the smaller sample size. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Hydrological Processes↗