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USGS1972

Definitions of selected ground-water terms, revisions and conceptual refinements

For many years there has been a need for redefinition or more precise definition of certain ground-water terms used in publications by members of the U.S . Geological Survey. Another problem has been the expression of the coefficient of permeability (herein redefined as hydraulic conductivity ) and the coefficient of transmissibility (herein redefined as transmissivity ) in inconsistent units that included the U.S . gallon, the foot, and in some expressions, the mile. Such inconsistent units and the attendant confusing numerical conversion factors used in flow equations, such as 527.7, 264, and 114.6, makes it unnecessarily difficult for hydrologists, especially in foreign countries, to follow and use our published results. Because of this it is advisable that basic ground-water flow equations in publications by members of the Geological Survey contain only the pure dimensionless numbers that result from the derivation of the equations, such as 2, 2.30, e, π , and 4, and that numerical results having dimensions should be expressed in consistent units of measurement. If in the solution of problems it is necessary or desirable to use inconsistent units, suitable conversion factors should be included so that the result is expressed in consistent units of length and time. For example, if a discharge rate is given in U.S. gallons per minute, conversion factors such as 7.48 gal ft -3 and 1,440 min day -1 should be included. Many hydrologists in English-speaking countries including the United States are already using consistent units in the fps, cgs, or mks systems of measurement. To meet the growing need for consistency, J. T. Callahan, then acting chief, Ground Water Branch, in a memoradum of October 21, 1965, appointed the Committee on Redefinition of Ground-Water Terms.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1907

Underground water in Sanpete and central Sevier valleys, Utah

Sanpete and central Sevier valleys are situated at the border of the Basin Range and Plateau provinces in south-central Utah. They are bounded on the east by the Wasatch and Sevier plateaus and on the west by the Gunnison Plateau and the Valley and Pavant ranges, and are drained by Sevier River, which empties into Sevier Lake in the Great Basin. (See fig. 1, p. 6.) These valleys rank with the richest parts of the State. They were occupied a few years after the Mormon pioneers founded Salt Lake City, in 1847, when settlements, which soon became thriving farming communities, were established where water for irrigation was most available. A variety of crops, especially wheat, are successfully grown, and the valleys are popularly known as the "granary of Utah." Sheep raising is also an important industry, the adjacent highlands being used for summer pastures. The climate is arid, and there is a striking contrast between those areas which in their natural state are covered with sagebrush and grease wood and the fruitful cultivated tracts. (See PI. I, A and B.) Trees are normally absent in the valleys, but they flourish to a limited extent on the adjacent highlands, where there are thin growths of quaking aspen, scrub oak, and stunted conifers. Irrigation is necessary for the production of crops. Canal systems are maintained by San Pitch Creek and Sevier River, and the mountain streams are tapped by ditches near the mouths of the canyons, but this supply is insufficient and attention is being turned to the subterranean store. This report is a preliminary statement of the general conditions of occurrence of underground water in Sanpete and central Sevier valleys. The field work was carried on in cooperation with Sanpete and Sevier counties through the State engineer, Mr. Caleb Tanner, who detailed Mr. C. S. Jarvis to collect the data embodied in the list of springs and wells on pages 51-60.

Utah↗
USGS1972

Geohydrology of the lower Verdigris River valley between Muskogee and Catoosa, Oklahoma

Alluvium is the principal aquifer along the Verdigris River between Muskogee and Catoosa, Okla. Yields of 1 to 10 gallons of water per minute, adequate for most domestic and stock uses, are available in almost all areas underlain by alluvium. In places where the proportion of gravel to fine material is high, yields ranging from 10 to 30 gallons per minute are possible from large-diameter wells. Terrace deposits yield small amounts of water (1 to 10 gallons per minute), adequate for most domestic and stock uses. Water-level fluctuations, in response to seasonal changes in recharge and discharge, range from 1 to 5 feet. Long-term fluctuations, measured as changes in seasonal high or low water levels during 8 years of record, are about 10 feet in the alluvium and less than 5 feet in the terrace deposits. Recharge to the alluvium is mainly by precipitation. Recharge maintains groundwater levels above the level of the Verdigris River, which, in turn, is the natural drain of the aquifer. Discharge from the alluvium is by seepage into the river and its tributaries and by evapotranspiration. Generally, the quality of the water in the alluvium and terrace deposits is suitable for domestic, stock, and irrigation uses.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1971

Availability of streamflow for recharge of the basal aquifer in the Pearl Harbor area, Hawaii

The Pearl Harbor area is underlain by an extensive basal aquifer that contains large supplies of fresh water. Because of the presence of a cap rock composed of sedimentary material that is less permeable than the basaltic lava of the basal aquifer, seaward movement of ground water is retarded. The cap rock causes the basal water to stand at a high level; thus, the lens of fresh water that floats on sea water is thick. Discharge from the basal ground-water body, which includes pumpage from wells and shafts, averaged 250 million gallons per day during 1931-65. Because the water level in the basal aquifer did not decline progressively, recharge to the ground-water body must have been approximately equal to discharge. Although pumping for agricultural use has decreased since 1931, net ground-water discharge has increased because of a large increase in pumping for urban use. Substitution of ground water for surface water in the irrigation of sugarcane has also contributed to a net increase in ground-water discharge. The development of Mililani Town will further increase discharge. The increase in ground-water discharge may cause an increase in chloride content of the water pumped from wells near the shore of Pearl Harbor unless the increased discharge is balanced by increased recharge to the local aquifer. The aquifer is recharged by direct infiltration and deep percolation of rain, principally in the high forested area, by infiltration and percolation of irrigation water applied in excess of plant requirements, by seepage of water through streambeds, and possibly by ground-water inflow from outside the area. Recharge is greatest in the uplands, where rainfall is heavy and where much infiltration takes place before rainwater collects in the middle and lower reaches of stream channels. Once water collects in and saturates the alluvium of stream channels, additional inflow to the streams will flow out to sea, only slightly decreased by seepage. Average annual direct runoff from the 90-square-mile Pearl Harbor area is 47.27 million gallons per day, or 11.1 inches; this is 13.3 percent of the average annual rainfall (83.3 in.) over the area. Average annual direct runoff in streams at the 800- and 400-foot altitudes is 29 and 38 million gallons per day, respectively. Kipapa Stream has the largest average annual direct runoff at those altitudes--6 and 9 million gallons per day, respectively. Because streams are flashy and have a wide range in discharge, only 60 percent of the average annual runoff can be economically diverted through ditches to recharge areas. The diversion may be increased slightly if reservoirs are used in conjunction with ditches to temporarily detain flows in excess of ditch capacity. The planned irrigation use of some of the perennial flow available in Waikele Stream near sea level will decrease pumping from and increase recharge to the basal aquifer. Suspended-sediment load is mainly silt and clay, and it increases rapidly with increased discharge. Thus, the use of streamflow for artificial recharge poses problems. High flows must be used if recharge is to be effective, but flows must not be so high as to cause clogging of recharge facilities with sediment or woodland debris. Practical tests are needed to determine the advantages and disadvantages of different types of recharge structures, such as a reservoir or basin, large-diameter deep shafts, deep wells, or combinations of all these structures.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1971

Water resources of the upper White River basin, east-central Indiana

Ground-water discharge to the streams sustains year-round streamflow in the upper White River basin. This discharge, referred to as ground-water runoff or base runoff, is considered to be an index to the amount of g ound water available for development. A comparison of the variations of groundwater runoff and aquifer distribution in the basin shows that the areas of best development potential are areas where thick sand and gravel aquifers are adjacent to the streams. The average ground-water runoff for these areas is between 400,000 and 500,000 gallons per day per square mile. The most permeable aquifers in the basin are the sand and gravel deposits of Quaternary age. These aquifers occur mainly as relatively thick elongate bodies along bedrock valleys and as relatively thin sheetlike deposits at or near land surface. The representative hydraulic conductivity of these aquifers ranges from 1,500 to 2,500 gallons per day per square foot. The limestone and dolomite formations of the bedrock are a source of moderate quar tities of water. The long-term average streamflow in the basin is approximately 0.9 cubic feet per second per square mile. The yearly average discharge varies from about one-fourth to twice the long-term average. The 7-day 10-year low flow ranges from about 0.01 to 0.3 cubic feet per second per square mile; the main-stem flow ranges from 0.10 to 0.13 cubic feet per second per square mile. The water in the aquifers is predominately a very hard calcium bicarbonate type; it is generally high in iron and contains a moderate amount of dissolved solids. Fresh water (1,000 milligrams per liter dissolved solids or less) is present to depths of approximately 400 feet below land surface. In the tributaries and in the headwaters region of the White River, the composition of surface water is very similar to that of ground water. The quality cf the water in the White River deteriorates in the downstream direction owing to the cumulative effects of sewage effluent.

Indiana↗
USGS1971

Prospects for developing stock - Water supplies from wells in northeastern Garfield County, Montana

Ground-water resources in northeastern Garfield County, Mont., afford a practical and reliable source of stock water on the intermingled public and private grazing lands that together comprise an area of about 1,200 square miles. The oldest formation exposed in the area is the relatively thick and impermeable Bearpaw Shale of Cretaceous .age. Overlying the Bearpaw Shale in succession are the Fox Hills Sandstone and Hell Creek Formation of Cretaceous age, the Fort Union Formation of Tertiary age, and thin glacial deposits .and alluvium of Quaternary age. All but the Bearpaw Shale and the glacial deposits are potential aquifers. Published geologic maps were found to be satisfactory after fitting contacts to the topographic base. Mapping, therefore, was limited mainly to outlining on aerial photographs the alluvial deposits in the stream valleys. The major structural feature is the Blood Creek syncline, the axis of which plunges eastward 10-15 feet per mile across the southern part of the area. Beds generally dip 15-25 feet per mile toward the synclinal axis. Water in bedrock aquifers is under artesian pressure, .and most wells in Big and Little Dry Creek valleys flow at the land surface. The only bedrock aquifer having appreciable areal extent is a sandstone 30-70 feet thick that has been mapped by previous investigators as the upper part of the Fox Hills Sandstone. This aquifer crops out in the northern and northwestern parts of the area and dips about 20 feet per mile southeastward beneath younger beds. Most wells in the northern half of the area obtain water from this sandstone at drilling depths of less than 200 feet. The depth to the Fox Hills Sandstone increases progressively southward, and most wells south of Woody Creek obtain water from irregularly distributed sandstone beds and lenses in the overlying Hell Creek and Fort Union Formations. The depth at which water may be obtained from these beds is not accurately predictable, but the depth seldom exceeds 300 feet. The results of the investigation indicate that the prospects for obtaining ample water for livestock from wells drilled into the bedrock formations are very favorable in most of the area. The average depth of bedrock wells in the area is 195 feet. Underflow in the alluvial deposits along all the larger stream valleys also affords a practical source of stock water. Chemical analyses of samples collected at 43 wells and three springs show the water quality to be generally poor. Water from bedrock aquifer contains 530-5,340 milligrams per liter total dissolved solids, whereas water from alluvium contains less than 1,500 milligrams per liter total dissolved solids. The predominant constituents are sodium, bicarbonate, and sulfate. So far as could be determined, all water supplies in the area are suitable for livestock.

Montana↗
USGS1972

Water for cranberry culture in the Cranmoor area of central Wisconsin

The Cranmoor area of central Wisconsin is the principal cranberry producing area of the State. Cranberries are grown in only about 2.5 square miles of an 80-square-mile marsh and swamp in the Cranberry Creek basin. Cranberry growers have built reservoirs and ditches throughout 25 square miles of marsh for better management of the area's natural water supply. Additional water is diverted into the basin to supplement the cranberry needs. In the 1966-67 hydrologic budget for Cranberry Creek basin, annual inputs were 27.8 inches of precipitation, 3.8 inches of surface-water diversion into the basin, and 1.1 inches decrease in stored water. Annual outputs were. 20.8 inches of evapotranspiration, 11.7 inches of runoff, and 0.2 inch of groundwater outflow. During the 1966-67 period, precipitation averaged about 3 inches per year below normal. The water used for cranberry culture is almost exclusively surface water. Efficient management of the basin's water supply, plus intermittent diversions of about 100 cubic feet per second from outside the basin, provide cranberry growers with a sufficient quantity of water. Although the quantity of surface water is adequate, the pH (generally 5.7-6.7) is slightly high for optimum use. Dissolved oxygen is slightly low, generally between 4 and 10 milligrams per liter. The water is soft; iron and manganese contents vary seasonally, being high in winter and summer and low in spring. Additional supplies of surface water can be obtained by increasing diversions from outside the basin and by increasing reservoir capacity within the basin. Ground water, although not presently used for cranberries, is available in the central, southern, and eastern parts of the basin, where the thickness of the saturated alluvium exceeds 50 feet. Well yields in these areas might be as much as 1,000 gpm (gallons per minute). Additionally, well yields of as much as 1,000 gpm may be expected from saturated alluvium southeast of Cranberry Creek basin. Where saturated alluvium is less than 50 feet thick, in the northern and western parts of the basin, well yields generally are less than 50 gpm. Ground water is also available from sandstone in the western part of the basin. Where the sandstone is thickest (about 60 ft.), well yields may be as much as 200 gpm. The quality of ground water is similar to that of surface water. The pH of water from the shallow alluvium ranges between 6.0 and 6,6; the pH of water from the deep alluvium is about 7.0. Ground water is soft to moderately hard, 22 to 88 milligrams per liter, and contains excessive amounts of iron and manganese.

Wisconsin↗
USGS1971

The water quality of Sam Rayburn Reservoir, eastern Texas

Inflow of wastes to the Angelina River has caused some local deterioration of the quality of water downstream from Lufkin. However, the volume of flow in the Angelina River has been adequate to prevent serious deterioration of the quality of water in Sam Rayburn Reservoir. From March 1965 to September 1968, the time-weighted concentration of dissolved solids in water released from Sam Rayburn Reservoir averaged about 120 mg/l (milligrams per liter). The average dissolved-solids content of water in the reservoir during 13 surveys ranged from about 100 to 145 mg/l. The dissolved-oxygen content of water in the reservoir varied seasonally and was intimately related 'to the pattern of thermal stratification. During 10 reservoir surveys, the depth-integrated concentration of dissolved oxygen at deep sites in the downstream half of the reservoir averaged more than 5 mg/l. The concentration of dissolved oxygen usually was much greater during periods of winter circulation than during periods of summer stagnation. About 2 river miles upstream from Sam Rayburn Dam, the depth-integrated dissolved-oxygen concentration ranged from 1.2 mg/l (16-percent saturation) on June 30, 1965., to 10.9 mg/1 (91-percent saturation) on February 4, 1966. During periods of summer stagnation, water below depths of 25-35 feet usually contained less than 2.5 mg/l dissolved oxygen and often contained less than 1.0 mg/l. The dissolved-oxygen content of water usually was less in the upstream half of the reservoir than in the downstream half. During 10 reservoir surveys, the depth-integrated concentration of dissolved oxygen about 41.5 miles upstream from Sam Rayburn Dam averaged 4.2 mg/l. Part of the dissolved-oxygen deficit (difference between saturated concentration and actual concentration) resulted from the inflow of wastes; however, data for tributary arms of the reservoir indicate that part of the dissolved-oxygen deficit resulted from the decomposition of naturally occurring organic debris in the water and in the area inundated by the reservoir. Concentrations of iron and manganese in the water varied seasonally and were related to the dissolved-oxygen content of the water. The concentrations of iron and manganese throughout the reservoir were much smaller during periods of winter circulation than during periods of summer stagnation. During each of three reservoir surveys in February, the concentrations of iron and manganese near Sam Rayburn Dam were less than 0.40 and 0.25 mg/l, respectively. However, on October 6, 1965, the iron content of water ranged from less than 1 mg/l at depths less than 30 feet to as much at 14 mg/l at greater depths. Similarly, on September 9, 1966, the concentration of manganese near the dam ranged from less than 0.5 mg/l at depths less than 10 feet to as much as 6.9 mg/l at greater depths. Although storage of water in Sam Rayburn Reservoir has resulted in a decrease in variations of dissolved solids and principal chemical constituents in the Angelina River downstream from the reservoir, it has resulted in significant seasonal variations in ,the concentrations of dissolved oxygen, iron, and manganese at downstream sites. Results of periodic surveys indicate that dissolved-oxygen concentrations at three sites in the 19-mile reach of the Angelina River downstream from Sam Rayburn Dam were low in late summer and early fall after periods of summer stagnation in the reservoir. Moreover, the amount of reaeration that occurred in the reach was insignificant. During periods when the dissolved-oxygen deficiency was large, the concentrations of iron and manganese at each of the three sites increased greatly.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1972

Factors contributing to unusually low runoff during the period 1962-68 in the Concho River Basin, Texas

To determine the reasons for the unusually low runoff in the Concho River basin during the period 1962-68, the physical developments and climatic changes in the basin were identified and related to changes in the regimen of streamflow. Land use, brush infestation, and land-treatment practices have not caused significant changes in the rainfall-runoff relationship. The use of surface water for irrigation has increased very little during the past 70 years, and although the use of ground water for irrigation has greatly increased in the past 25 years, springflow has not been significantly diminished. The base flow of the streams is materially reduced by surface-water irrigation diversions. Diversions for municipal and industrial use have increased rapidly, but these diversions affect only the streamflow downstream from San Angelo. Statistical analyses showed the annual rainfall to be highly variable, with little serial correlation. Records of rainfall during the period 1943-68 are significantly different in character from previous long-term records. The frequency of monthly rainfall equal to or greater than 2.0 inches during the period 1943-68, and especially during the period 1962-68, was significantly less than the long-term averages. Analyses of annual runoff data, adjusted for depletions, show large variations in annual runoff. Coefficients of variation ranged from 0.8 to 1.4, and first-order serial correlations ranged from 0.01 to 0.28. The estimated recurrence interval of the 1962-68 drought is about 200 years. The analyses of rainfall-intensity and runoff data indicate that the basic cause for the relatively low runoff during the period 1962-68 was the lack of high-intensity, long-duration storms rather than any physical changes or agricultural practices in the watershed

Texas↗
USGS1972

Water quality of streams in the Neshaminy Creek basin, Pennsylvania

The Neshaminy has carved a scenic route on its way to the Delaware River, thereby helping to increase the value of land. The unabated growth of nearby metropolitan areas and the multiplying needs for water and open space for water storage and recreation in southeastern Pennsylvania have become impelling forces that mark the Neshaminy valley watershed for continued development of its land and water resources. Toward this end the Neshaminy Valley Watershed Association, Inc., which came into existence June 13, 1956, is one of several organizations dedicated to land and water-resources development in the Neshaminy Creek basin. The principal objectives of the Neshaminy Valley Watershed Association are (1) to provide for future water-supply and recreation needs, (2) to safeguard against flood and drought damage, (3) to decrease stream pollution, (4) to preserve wildlife and natural beauty, (5) to reduce soil erosion and siltation, 96) to reforest marginal land, and (7) to improve and protect existing woodland. This study shows that there is a wide variance in water quality between the West Branch and the North Branch of the Neshaminy. However, the study shows no significant difference between the chemical composition of the Little Neshaminy Creek and the main stream before they come together at Rushland. Just beyond their confluence the main stream has drained more than half its total drainage area. The average flow of the stream at this location is about 85 percent of the average flow at Langhorne. The continued presence of game fish in most of Neshaminy Creek indicates a degree of water purity that characterizes this stream as suitable for recreation. However, during the summer and early fall, several small streams feeding the Neshaminy go dry. The diminished flow during these periods and during prolonged drought impairs stream quality by causing a greater concentration of dissolved solids in water. The relatively inferior water during low-flow periods, therefore, necessitates providing more water of good quality to reservoirs for emergency releases, not only to augment supply to users in needful downstream areas but also to improve stream quality by dilution.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1972

Water for a rapidly growing urban community — Oakland County, Michigan

Oakland County, an area of 899 square miles, is in southeastern Michigan. The southern part of the county is overlapped by the suburbs of the city of Detroit. In 1970, about 850,000 people were living in the county and using about 100 million gallons of water a day. More than 80 percent of the water used for large industrial and municipal supplies came from Detroit's water system. The average annual rate of streamflow from the county is about 370 million gallons per day (575 cubic feet per second). Median annual 7-day low flows range from 0 to 0.25 cfs per square mile. Low flows can be augmented by more than 60,000 acre-feet of water captured during high streamflow by construction of small reservoirs at 21 inventoried sites. Glacial deposits and the Marshall Sandstone are the prime sources of ground water. Most wells that penetrate the full thickness of glacial deposits in the northwestern part of the county will yield at least 50 gpm (gallons per minute), and many will yield more than 400 gpm. The Marshall Sandstone, which occurs only in the Holly area, is capable of yielding more than 1,000 gpm. The chemical quality of both surface and ground water is relatively good throughout the county. Only in the southern part of the county is the dissolved solids above the acceptable standard of 500 milligrams per liter.

Michigan↗
USGS1976

Artificial recharge through a well in fissured carbonate rock, west St. Paul, Minnesota

The Prairie du Chien Group was injected with 2,754,000 gallons (368,200 cubic feet), or 10,430 cubic metres, of municipally treated water at about 100 gallons per minute (13.4 cubic feet per minute), or 6.3 litres per second, for 20 days. The injection-pipe system was designed to utilize pipe friction rather than a remote-controlled valve in the well to maintain positive pressure and eliminate air entrainment in the injection water and the escape cf dissolved gasses from the water. During the 20-day injection period the temperature of the injection water declined gradually from 15.0 ° to 11.2 ° C, and the flow rate decreased from 108 to 90 gallons per minute (6.8 to 5.7 litres per second). Analyses of test data were, in some instances, based upon hydrologic judgement as well as observations. Results of aquifer tests before and after injections indicated that the transmissivity had decreased 18 percent during the intervening injection periods; however, the specific capacity remained the same, indicating no change in transmissivity during pumping. Analysis of water-level changes in observation wells during injection indicated a reduction in transmissivity of more than 50 percent; however, the specific capacity of the injection well decreased only about 5 percent during injection. A comparison of water-level changes with the discharge or recharge rates of the three tests showed that the water-level changes in the two observation wells tapping the Prairie du Chien Group during the injection test were greater than those projected from the two aouifer pumping tests. The deviations in the water-level changes and in the analysis of aquifer-test data indicate that the methods used to analyze data from these wells may not be wholly applicable, inasmuch as anisotropic and nonhomogeneous conditions prevail in at least the Prairie du Chien part of the aquifer. The native water and the injected water averaged 0.8 and 25 milligrams per litre chloride, respectively. The chloride, utilized as a tracer, showed that the injected water was detected only in the lower part of the nearest observation well, 99 feet (30.2 metres) from the injection well. The chemistry of the water and the rock formation showed little likelihood of plugging of the recharge well by chemical precipitation. Microbiological phenomena apparently did not become a significant factor in the recharge test. The hydraulic gradient of the aquifer in October and December 1971 (before and after injection) was estimated to be N. 36 ° E., 0.0013, and N. 39 ° E., 0.0012, respectively, on the basis of measurements of water levels in the three wells in the Prairie du Chien Group. The single-well tracer-dilution method of calculation showed a hydraulic gradient of 0.0016. A longitudinal dispersivity of 280 feet (85 metres) was calculated. Such a value of dispersivity is typical of fractured reservoirs and shows that the Prairie du Chien Group is a heterogeneous aquifer. The injection test demonstrated that it is hydrologically feasible to recharge the Prairie du Chien Group and the Jordan Sandstone artificially through wells completed in the Prairie du Chien Group. The fissures in the Prairie du Chien Group act as conduits through which water spreads. The water passes into the Jordan Sandstone from the Prairie du Chien over a larger area than it would if it were injected directly into the Jordan.

Minnesota↗