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At least 73 records · Page 4Linked to original sources
USGS1948

Geology and ground-water resources of Iwo Jima

Iwo Jima, in the western Pacific Ocean, consists of Motoyama, a broad volcanic cone, at the north, and Mt. Suribachi at the south, with an undulating isthmus between. Motoyama is largely light-gray-buff tuff. A thick andesitic lava flow under Suribachi, exposed in several places, is overlain by a thick deposit of cinder and scoria. The isthmus (called Tidorigahara by the Japanese) is underlain by more than 200 feet of loose black volcanic ash and fine cinder derived from Suribachi. Several small coral reefs are located about 340 and 110 feet above present sea level. Iwo Jima first came into existence, probably early in Pleistocene time, with the building above sea level of the tuff cone of Motoyama. Quite late in the active life of Motoyama, volcanic activity on the southwestern flank resulted in the formation of Suribachi. This activity may have started with the welling up of the andesitic lava which underlies Suribachi. Following the major eruption of Suribachi, relative sea level changed, and the sea stood about 360 feet higher than at present. The broad cone of Motoyama was beveled; the relative sea level then dropped 240 feet, with minor halts to about 120 feet above present level. As the island rose, Suribachi burst forth in its last stage of explosive activity. Wave erosion cut deeply into the andesite flow of Suribachi, and a prominent bench level was formed 120 feet above present sea level. The Japanese on the island were often faced with serious water shortages. Americans drilled wells and obtained moderately large supplies of usable water. The temperature of the water ranges from 105° to 179° F., and the water is somewhat mineralized. The most favorable area for ground-water development is the isthmus.

Iwo Jima↗
USGS1946

Geology and ground-water resources of the island of Hawaii

Hawaii, the largest island in the Hawaiian group, is 93 miles long, 76 miles wide, and covers 4,030 square miles. Mauna Loa Volcano is 13,680 feet high and Mauna Kea is 13,784 feet high. Plate 1 shows the geology, wells, springs, and water-development tunnels. Plate 2 is a map and description of points of geologic interest along the main highways. Plate 3 (same sheet as plate 2) shows highways and points of geologic interest in Hawaii National Park area. The volcanic terms used in the report are defined. Hawaii was built by five volcanoes. All the rocks are volcanic, except for minor amounts of sedimentary rock derived from them. Mauna Loa and Kilauea volcanoes erupt often; Hualalai Volcano last erupted in 1801; Mauna Kea has had Recent but no historic eruptions; Kohala Mountain has long been extinct. Kohala Mountain constitutes the northern end of the island. It is built largely of rocks of the Pololu volcanic series which are dominantly olivine basalt with a few thin intercalated beds of vitric basaltic ash. After the eruption of this series, Kohala Volcano was deeply eroded on the windward (northeastern) side, and a deep soil formed on its other slopes. Later, oligoclase andesite and trachyte lava flows, named the Hawi volcanic series, were erupted. They rest on soil at the top of the Pololu series, and lie in the valleys cut into the Pololu lavas on the windward slope. Both the Pololu and Hawi volcanics were erupted from three rift zones trending N. 35° W., S. 65° E., and S. 50° W. from the summit of the mountain. The rift zones are marked at the surface by rows or cinder cones, and beneath the surface by innumerable dikes. A caldera occupied the summit of the mountain at the beginning of the eruption of the Hawi lavas, and for a time confined the flows. It was gradually filled and the lava escaped northeastward into the large valleys. Some of the caldera faults can still be traced. A shallow graben indents the summit now. South of Kohala Mountain lies the much larger volcano of Mauna Kea. The early rocks of Mauna Kea constitute the Hamakua volcanic series. The lower member of this series consists chiefly of olivine basalt flows with intercalated thin beds of vitric basaltic ash. The olivine basalt of the lower member changes gradationally into the upper member, in which basalt and olivine basalt arc still abundant, but andesite also is present. Lavas of the upper member interfinger with Hawi lavas of Kohala Mountain. The Hamakua volcanic series is mantled with Pahala ash 5 to 20 feet thick, above which lie the rocks of the Laupahoehoe volcanic series. Locally the two series are separated by erosional unconformity, The Laupahoehoe lavas are dominantly andesite. The andesites erupted after the last glacial epoch are mapped separately on plate 1. The Laupahoehoe volcanic series, and probably also the Hamakua volcanic series, were erupted principally from three rift zones, trending west, northeast and south-southeast from the summit of the mountain. The upper slopes are studded with many large cinder cones, lying principally along the rift zones. Late in its geologic history, Mauna Kea was capped by a small glacier, presumably contemporaneous with the Wisconsin stage of glaciation in North America, which left conspicuous terminal, lateral, and ground moraines. Deposits exposed in canyons on the southern slope, formerly believed to be of glacial origin, are now believed to be volcanic explosion breccias. The main bulk of Hualalai Volcano is built of basalts of the Hualalai volcanic series. One flow of andesite has been found. The cinder and spatter cones lie principally along three rift zones which trend northwest, north, and southeast from the summit. On the northern slope of Hualalai Volcano lies the large trachyte pumice cone of Puu Waawaa, and its thick flow of trachyte. These are grouped together as the Waawaa volcanics. They are partly buried by later basalts from both Hualalai and Mauna Loa. The last eruption of Hualalai Volcano, in 1800–1801, produced olivine basalt. The earliest exposed rocks of Mauna Loa comprise the Ninole volcanic series. Several beds of altered vitric ash are intercalated with the lavas. Following eruption of the Ninole series, a long period or quiescence occurred, during which deep amphitheater-headed valleys were cut. This was followed by the eruption of the Kahuku volcanic series, consisting mostly of lavas with some thin beds of ash. The Rahuku series is overlain by the Pahala ash, which overlies also the Hilina volcanic series on Kilauea, the Hamakua volcanic series on Mauna Kea, and the Hawi volcanic series on Kohala, providing a rough datum for correlation of the lavas of the four mountains. Deposition of the Pahala ash was followed on Mauna Loa by eruption of the Kau volcanic series, which has continued until the present time. The historic and flaws of the Kau series are mapped separately on plate 1. The historic eruptions and volcanic activity of Mauna Loa are briefly described. The western and southern slopes of Mauna Loa are cut by normal faults along which the lower flanks of the mountain have slipped seaward. The Kau volcanic series and presumably also the Kahuku and Ninole volcanic series were erupted principally from vents along two rift zones which extend northeast and southwest from the summit caldera. The lavas of all three series are preponderantly olivine basalt. Many of the lavas contain small amounts of hypersthene. The Pahala ash on the northeastern and eastern slopes of Mauna Loa was derived largely from Mauna Kea. West and south of Kilauea Caldera, however, it was derived principally from Kilauea. Minor amounts were contributed by eruptions of Mauna Loa. It is a vitric basaltic ash, now generally altered to palagonite. The earliest exposed lavas and thin intercalated ash beds of Kilauea Volcano comprise the Hilina volcanic series. These are capped by the Pahala ash, which in turn, is overlain by the lavas and thin ash beds of the Puna volcanic series. The volcanics of both series were erupted along two rift zones, one extending southwestward from Kilauea Caldera, and the other extending southeastward for 5 miles and then bending sharply east by north. The lavas of both series are very largely olivine basalt. A few flows contain hypersthene. Augite phenocrysts are common in Mauna Loa lavas, but rare in those of Kilauea, indicating that crystallization has not progressed as far in the magma chamber of Kilauea Volcano as in that of Mauna Loa. Eruption of the Puna volcanic series has continued until the present time, the historic flows being separated from the prehistoric ones on plate 1. The historic eruptions and volcanic activity of Kilauea are briefly described. Kilauea Volcano originated on the southern slope of Mauna Loa where faults intersected the Eastern Fundamental Fissure of the Hawaiian Archipelago. The southern flank of Kilauea is cut by normal faults, along which the southern part is sliding seaward. The volcanoes of the island of Hawaii are believed to have started their activity in the Tertiary period. The great erosional period which followed deposition of the Pololu and Ninole volcanic series is placed near the end of the Pliocene. The Hilina and Hamakua volcanic series were probably erupted in the late Pliocene and earlier Pleistocene. The Hawi volcanic series and the Waawaa volcanics are probably early or middle Pleistocene in age. The main period of deposition of the Pahala ash was probably late in the middle Pleistocene or early in the upper Pleistocene. The Laupahoehoe volcanic series is late Pleistocene and Recent in age, most of the flows antedating the Wisconsin glaciation. The Hualalai volcanic series probably extends from Tertiary to historic time, and the Kau and Puna volcanic series from late Pleistocene to the present. A chapter is devoted to the petrography of the rocks in which are listed all reliable chemical rock analyses. The rocks of the island are highly permeable. Most of the rainfall sinks quickly into the ground. Perennial streams are present only on the windward slopes of Kohala Mountain and Mauna Kea. Most of the water sinks rapidly to the basal water table, where it floats on salt water according to the Ghyben-Herzberg principle. Basal water escapes in springs at or near sea level all along the coast. Only a very small proportion of it is recovered in wells. Along the windward coasts the basal water is of good quality and large supplies await development. Along the leeward coasts most of the basal water is brackish. In Kohala Mountain, much water is perched on ash beds in the Pololu volcanic series and on ash and soil at the base of the Hawi volcanic series. It escapes in perched springs in the big valleys and along the windward sea cliff and is recovered in tunnels. Along the windward slope of Mauna Keu, small amounts of water are perched by ash beds and dense lava flows in the Hamakua volcanic series. Small perched springs issue from these structures and water is recovered by tunnels. In the Kau District ash beds perch considerable water, which is recovered by many tunnels. On the southern slope of Mauna Kea small springs are perched by beds of hill wash. Dikes in the rift zones are relatively impermeable, but enclose masses of permeable rock. Water is confined at high level in the interdike compartments in Kohala Mountain, and probably in the other volcanoes. It escapes in high-level springs in the deep valleys on Kohala Mountain; some of it is recovered by tunnels. It is estimated that an average of about 13,085 million gallons of water a day falls as rain over the whole island. Of this only about 2.5 percent is visibly discharged from wells, tunnels, and springs. Large supplies of basal groundwater await development. Projects for development of additional water for the city of Hilo and the Kona District are described. Chemical analyses of water, water supplies of towns and villages, descriptions of wells, springs, and tunnels, and discharge records of numerous springs and tunnels are given in tabulated form.

Hawaii↗
USGS1981

Water resources inventory of Connecticut Part 7: upper Connecticut River basin

The 508 square miles of the upper Connecticut River basin in north-central Connecticut include the basins of four major tributaries: the Scantic, Park, and Hockanum Rivers, and the Farmington River downstream from Tariffville. Precipitation over this area averaged 44 inches per year during 1931-60. In this period, an additional 3,800 billion gallons of water per year entered the basin in the main stem of the Connecticut River at the Massachusetts state line, about 230 billion gallons per year in the Farmington River at Tariffville, and about 10 billion gallons per year in the Seantic River at the Massachusetts state line. Some water was also imported from outside the basin by water-supply systems. About half the precipitation, 22.2 inches, was lost from the basin by evapotranspiration; the remainder flowed out of the study area in the Connecticut River at Portland. Variations in streamflow at 41 long-term continuous-record gaging stations are summarized in standardized graphs and tables that can be used to estimate streamflow characteristics at other sites. For example, mean-flow and two low-flow characteristics: (1) the 7-day annual minimum flow for 2-year and (2) 10-year recurrence intervals, have been determined for many partial-record stations throughout the basin. Of the 30 principal lakes, ponds, and reservoirs, two have usable storage capacities of more than 1 billion gallons. The maximum safe draft rate (regulated flow) of the largest of these, Shenipsit Lake at Rockville, is 6.5 million gallons per day for the 2-year and 30-year recurrence intervals (median and lowest annual flow). Floods have occurred within each month of the year but in different years. The greatest known flood on the Connecticut River was in March 1936; it had a peak flow of 130,000 cubic feet per second at Hartford. Since then, major floods have been reduced by flood-control measures. The major aquifers underlying the basin are composed of unconsolidated materials (stratified drift and till) and bedrock. Stratified drift overlies till and bedrock in valleys and lowlands in the eastern and western parts and in most of the broad central valley. The stratified drift generally ranges in thickness from 10 feet in small valleys to more than 200 feet in the Connecticut River Valley. Bedrock underlies the entire basin and is composed of (1) interbedded sedimentary and igneous rocks and (2) crystalline rocks. Ground-water sources yield from several million gallons per day from large well fields to 1 gallon per minute from single wells. Yields of 100 gal/min or more are most commonly obtained from screened wells tapping stratified-drift aquifers; amounts can be calculated by use of a series of graphs in conjunction with estimates of aquifer transmissivity and thickness. Eighteen areas underlain by good aquifers are selected as the most favorable locations for large-scale development of ground water. Selection of these areas is based on estimates of aquifer characteristics and the amount of water potentially available from induced infiltration of streamflow at low-flow conditions. Small to moderate water supplies can generally be obtained from any of the aquifers. Wells in bedrock yield at least a few gallons per minute at most sites. The probability of obtaining an adequate yield for domestic supply is greater in sedimentary than in crystalline bedrock and is also greater in stratified-drift overburden than in till. Where unaffected by man's activities, the water is of the calcium magnesium bicarbonate type, is generally low to moderate in dissolved-solids concentration, and ranges from soft to hard. In general, streamflow is less mineralized than ground water, particularly when it consists largely of direct runoff. However, streams become more highly mineralized during low-flow conditions, when most flow consists of more highly mineralized water discharged from aquifers. The median dissolved-solids concentration in water from 25 stream sites was 113 mg/L (milligrams per liter) during high flow, and 148 mg/L during low flow within the study period. Iron and manganese occur naturally in objectionable concentrations in some streams draining swamps and in some waters draining from sedimentary bedrock which contains iron- and manganese-bearing minerals. Man's activities have affected the water quality of streams in much of the area, particularly in the Hockanum and Park River basins. The degradation in quality in these streams is shown by wide and erratic changes in dissolved-solids concentration, excessive amounts of trace elements, a low dissolved-oxygen content, and abnormally high temperatures. Ground water within this area is degraded principally by induced infiltration of surface water that contains chemical wastes, by leachate from wastes stored or disposed of on the ground, and by effluents discharged from septic tanks. The quantity and quality of water are satisfactory for a wide variety of uses, and, with suitable treatment, the water may be used for most purposes. The total amount of water used in 1968 was more than 100 billion gallons. About 80 percent of this was used for industrial purposes, and 90 percent of the industrial water was obtained from surface-water sources. About 85 percent of the population was supplied with water for domestic use by 15 major public and municipal systems and 25 private associations. Analyses of water from the 13 largest systems show generally good quality.

Connecticut↗
USGS1990

Phreatomagmatic and phreatic fall and surge deposits from explosions at Kilauea volcano, Hawaii, 1790 a.d.: Keanakakoi Ash Member

In or around 1790 a.d. an explosive eruption took place in the summit caldera of Kilauea shield volcano. A group of Hawaiian warriors close to the caldera at the time were killed by the effects of the explosions. The stratigraphy of pyroclastic deposits surrounding Kilauea (i.e., the Keanakakoi Ash Member) suggests that the explosions referred to in the historic record were the culmination of a prolonged hydrovolcanic eruption consisting of three main phases. The first phase was phreatomagmatic and generated well-bedded, fine fallout ash rich in glassy, variably vesiculated, juvenile magmatic and dense, lithic pyroclasts. The ash was mainly dispersed to the southwest of the caldera by the northeasterly trade winds. The second phase produced a Strombolian-style scoria fall deposit followed by phreatomagmatic ash similar to that of the first phase, though richer in accretionary lapilli and lithics. The third and culminating phase was phreatic and deposited lithic-rich lapilli and block fall layers, interbedded with cross-bedded surge deposits, and accretionary lapilli-rich, fine ash beds. These final explosions may have been responsible for the deaths of the warriors. The three phases were separated by quiescent spells during which the primary deposits were eroded and transported downwind in dunes migrating southwestward and locally excavated by fluvial runoff close to the rim. The entire hydrovolcanic eruption may have lasted for weeks or perhaps months. At around the same time, lava erupted from Kilauea's East Rift Zone and probably drained magma from the summit storage. The earliest descriptions of Kilauea (30 years after the Keanakakoi eruption) emphasize the great depth of the floor (300-500 m below the rim) and the presence of stepped ledges. It is therefore likely that the Keanakakoi explosions were deepseated within Kilauea, and that the vent rim was substantially lower than the caldera rim. The change from phreatomagmatic to phreatic phases may reflect the progressive degassing and cooling of the magma during deep withdrawal: throughout the phreatomagmatic phases magma vesiculation contributed to the explosive interaction with water by initiating the fragmentation process: thereafter, the principal role of the subsiding magma column was to supply heat for steam production that drove the phreatic explosions of the final phase. ?? 1990 Springer-Verlag.

Bulletin of Volcanology↗
USGS1947

Geology of the Borah Peak quadrangle, Idaho

This report is on result of a long program of geologic investigation in south-central Idaho, undertaken as an aid in the development of the mineral resources of the region. This quadrangle was examined because of the exceptional opportunities for the study of stratigraphy and structure afforded by the Lost River Range, which is the highest in Idaho and contains comparatively few intrusive igneous rocks. The Borah Peak quadrangle differs from the region to the west and northwest in that it contains parts of two sharply defined, narrow ranges elongated in a north-westerly direction, instead of broad, irregular mountain masses, in which the trends of most local topographic units are ill-defined. These ranges, the Lost River and the Lemhi, are flanked by intermontane valleys sparsely populated by stock ranchers. The Lemhi and Swauger quartzites, regarded as of Belt (pre-Cambrian) age, are named. The two Cambrian (?) formations of the Bayhorse region are not recognized in this quadrangle. The Ramshorn slate (Lower Ordovician), widespread and thick there, does not appear to be exposed anywhere in the Borah Peak quadrangle with the possible exception of small areas east of the Elkhorn Ranch, where relations are obscure. The higher Paleozoic formations, named in order of decreasing age, are the Kinnikinic quartzite, Saturday Mountain formation, Laketown dolomite, Jefferson dolomite, Grand View dolomite, Three Forks limestone, Milligen formation, Brazer limestone, and Wood River formation. The Three Forks limestone, nowhere much over 250 feet thick, is the only one of these not recognized farther west. It provides substantial aid in the interpretation of upper Paleozoic stratigraphy. Equivalent beds to the west are presumably grouped with the Milligen. The grit that introduced uncertainties into the correlation of the Wood River and Milligen formations in the southeastern part of the Bayhorse quadrangle is absent here, and both formations have close lithologic resemblances to those in the type localities in the Wood River region. Wood River strata (Pennsylvanian) crop out only in the southwest corner of the quadrangle, and the Brazer may have been the last Paleozoic unit to be deposited over most of the area. Certainly it can have had comparatively little cover over it throughout the Mesozoic. The Brazer is regarded as Mississippian, but some of the fossils in it have Pennsylvania affinities. The carbonate rocks in the Three Forks and later formations are dominantly calcareous, while those in earlier units are dolomitic. Carbonaceous matter is present in most of the formations but is abundant only in the Milligen. The Challis volcanics (Oligocene or Miocene) constitute the first stratified unit to be laid down after Paleozoic deposition ceased, although there was a little intrusive activity late in the Mesozoic. The volcanics were once widely distributed on the flanks of the mountains and are still plentiful in the northwestern corner of the quadrangle, near the head of the valley of the Pahsimeroi, and in smaller areas. They are neither so abundant nor so diversified as they are farther west. They are locally succeeded by an alluvial formation, here termed the Donkey fanglomerate, of possible Pliocene age. Abundant Quaternary glacial and alluvial deposits are present in the larger valleys. The Lemhi and Swauger quartzites were broadly folded before Paleozoic sedimentation began. Apparently the later deformation affected them only enough to render the more impure beds somewhat schistose. The Paleozoic rocks have been folded into closely spaced, asymmetric anticlines, locally broken by thrusts at and near their crests. These folds approximately parallel the trends of the present range, whereas those in the old rocks strike more nearly north. Later deformation twisted some of the folds and produced thrusts of lower dip and greater extent. The folded rocks in the Lost River Range have been arched into an anticlinorium. The original, tight folds may have preceded the emplacement of the Idaho batholith farther west, while the anticlinorium and the late twists and low thrusts result from deformation during the long period in which the batholith came to place and adjusted itself. Local intricately contorted beds in the Brazer limestone are interpreted as the effects of flowage in calcareous material subjected to tangential pressure under comparatively light supercumbent load. The quadrangle contains numerous normal faults of diverse trends. Most of those that can be conclusively demonstrated strike transverse to the trends of the ranges, but especially along parts of the southwest front of the Lemhi Range normal faults along the range fronts may have helped locally to guide erosion of the mountains. Some of the faults have displacements of thousands of feet and are thought to have originated in connection with the low-angle thrusts. Most of these, as well as minor breaks of diverse trends, affect also the Challis volcanics, which shows that renewed movement occurred in Tertiary time. The present mountain masses and broad intermontane valleys are in about the positions occupied by similar features in the early Tertiary. Several incomplete erosion cycles since then have greatly modified the topography but have not obliterated the influence of these ancient land forms. The results of early episodes in the development of the topography are much obscured by the rugged forms that result from active Pleistocene glaciation and later vigorous stream erosion, but modified remnants of the post-Challis and Donkey Hills surfaces can be clearly distinguished. Several less widespread remnants mark intermediate steps in the process. Exceptionally abundant and permeable, coarse alluvial and glacial deposits floor intermontane valleys and choke the larger mountain gorges to such an extent as to interfere with normal erosion and make the surface-water supplies even scantier than might be expected from the climate of the region, which is moderately humid in the mountains and semiarid in the valleys. Active erosion in the high mountains and comparatively static conditions on fans at the range borders result in striking contrasts.

Idaho↗
USGS1967

Water resources inventory of Connecticut Part 2: Shetucket River Basin

The Shetucket River basin has a relatively abundant supply of water of generally good quality which is derived from precipitation that has fallen on the basin. Annual precipitation has ranged from about 30 inches to 75 inches and has averaged about 45 inches over a 35-year period. Approximately 20 inches of water are returned to the atmosphere each year by evaporation and transpiration; the remainder of the annual precipitation either flows overland to streams or percolates downward to the water table and ultimately flows out of the basin in the Shetucket River or as underflow through the deposits beneath. During the autumn and winter months precipitation normally is sufficient to cause a substantial increase in the amount of water stored underground and in surface reservoirs within the basins whereas in the summer most of the precipitation is lost through evaporation and transpiration, resulting in sharply reduced streamflow and lowered groundwater levels. The mean monthly storage of water in the basin on an average is 3.5 inches higher in November than it is in June. The amount of water that flows out of the basin in the Shetucket River represents the total amount of water potentlally available for use by man. Annual runoff from the entire basin above the Quinebaug River has ranged from about 13 to 42 inches since 1929, and has averaged about 23 inches (300 billion gallons). Although runoff indicates the total amount of water potentially available, it is usually not economically or legally feasible for man to use all of it. On the other hand, with increased development, It is possible that some water will be reused several times. The water available may be tapped as it flows through the area or is temporarily stored in streams, lakes, and aquifers. The amounts that can be developed vary from place to place and time to time, depending on the amount of precipitation, on the size of drainage area, on the thickness, permeability and areal extent of aquifers, and on the variations in chemical and physical quality of the water. Differences in streamflow from point to point are due primarily to differences in the proportion of stratified drift in the drainage basin above each point, which affect the timing of streamflow, and to differences in precipitation, which affect the amount of streamflow. Information on streamflow from gaging stations may be extended to ungaged sites by accounting for both of these factors ,in calculations. Future floods on the upper Willimantic River or the Shetucket River are unlikely to cause major damage so long as buildings are not constructed below the highest flood elevations to be expected with the present system of reservoirs for flood control. Ground water can be obtained from wells almost anywhere in the Shetucket River basin, but the amount obtainable from individual wells at any particular point depends upon the type and water-bearing properties of the aquifers present. For practical purposes, the earth materials in the basin comprise three aquifers--stratified drift, till, and bedrock, Stratified drift is the only aquifer generally capable of yielding more than 100 gpm to individual wells. This aquifer covers about 18 percent of the basin and occurs chiefly In lowlands where it overlies till or bedrock. Coefficient of permeability of the coarse-grained unit of stratified drift averages about 1,900 gpd per sq ft. Drilled, screened wells tapping this unit, are known to yield from 200 to 675 gpm. Dug wells in coarse-grained stratified drift should supply at least 2 gpm per foot of drawdown over an 8-hour period. Fine-grained stratified drift has an average coefficient of permeability of about 400 gpd per sq ft and can usually yield to dug wells supplies sufficient for household use. Till and bedrock are widespread in extent but can provide only small to moderate water supplies. Till is tapped chiefly by dug wells; permanent supplies of more than 200 gpd can be obtained from dug wells at a majority of sites in areas of till, but there are many sites where the till is too impermeable or too thin to provide this much water throughout the year. The coefficient of permeability of till ranges from about 0.2 gpd per sq ft to 55 gpd per sq it. Bedrock Is tapped chiefly by drilled wells, about 90 percent of which will supply at least 3 gpm. Very few, however, will supply more than 50 gpm. The amount of ground water potentially available In an area depends upon the amount of groundwater outflow, the amount of ground water in storage, and the quantity of water available by Induced infiltration from streams and lakes. From data on permeability, saturated thickness, recharge, yield from aquifer storage, well performance, and streamflow, preliminary estimates of ground-water availability can be made for any point in the basin. Long-term yields estimated for 15 areas especially favorable for development of large ground-water supplies ranged from 1.3 to 61.8 mgd. Detailed site studies to determine optimum yields, drawdowns, and spacing of individual wells are needed before major ground-water development is undertaken In these or other areas. The chemical quality of water in the Shetucket basin Is generally good to excellent. Samples of naturally occurring surface water collected from 32 sites contained less than 61 ppm of dissolved solids and less than 32 ppm of hardness. Water from wells is more highly mineralized than naturally occurring water from streams. Even so only 7 percent of wells sampled yielded water with more than 200 ppm of dissolved sol-ids and only 9 percent yielded water with more than 120 ppm of hardness. Even in the major rivers, which are used to transport industrial waste, the dissolved mineral content is less than 100 ppm and hardness rarely exceeds 40 ppm. One notable exception occurs in the lower reaches of Little River where an exceptional amount of industrial waste is discharged into the river near Versailles. This waste is particularly noticeable during low streamflow. Iron and manganese In both ground water and surface water are the only constituents whose concentrations commonly exceed recommended limits for domestic and industrial use. Most wells in the basin yield clear water with little or no iron or manganese, but distributed among them are wells with ground water that contains enough of these dissolved constituents to be troublesome for most uses. iron concentrations in naturally occurring stream water exceeded 0.3 ppm under tow-flow conditions at 20 percent of the sites sampled. Large concentrations of iron in stream water result from discharge of iron-bearing ground water or from the discharge of water from swamps. In swamps the iron is released largely from decaying vegetation. Ground water more than 30 feet below the land surface has a relatively constant temperature, usually between 48°F and 50°F. Water temperature in very shallow wells may fluctuate from about 38°F in February or March to about 55°F in late summer. Water temperature in the larger streams fluctuates much more widely, ranging from 32°F at least for brief periods in winter, to about 85°F occasionally during The quantity of suspended sediment transported by streams in the basin is negligible, though amounts large enough to be troublesome may occur locally at times. The total amount of water used In the Shetucket Rlver basin for all purposes during 1961 was about 5,810 million gallons~ which is equivalent to 208 gpd per person, Public water systems supplied the domestic needs of nearly half the population of the basin; 10 systems were sampled, all of which provided water of better quality than the U.S. Public Health Service suggests for drinking water standards.

Connecticut↗
USGS1968

Water resources inventory of Connecticut Part 3: lower Thames and southeastern coastal river basins

The lower Thames and southeastern coastal river basins have a relatively abundant supply of water of generally good quality which is derived from streams entering the area and precipitation that has fallen on the area. Annual precipitation has ranged from about 32 inches to 65 inches and has averaged about 48 inches over a 30-year period. Approximately 22 inches of water are returned to the atmosphere each year by evaporation and transpiration; the remainder of the annual precipitation either flows overland to streams or percolates downward to the water table and ultimately flows out of the report area through estuaries and coastal streams or as underflow through the deposits beneath. During the autumn and winter months precipitation normally is sufficient to cause a substantial increase in the amount of water stored underground and in surface reservoirs within the report area, whereas in the summer most of the precipitation is lost through evaporation and transpiration, resulting in sharply reduced stream-flow and lowered ground-water levels. The mean monthly storage of water on an average is about 3.8 inches higher in November than it is in June. The amount of water that flows through and out of the report area represents the total amount of water potentially available for use by man. For the 30-year period 1931 through 1960, the annual runoff from the report area has averaged nearly 26 inches (200 billion gallons), from the entire Thames River basin above Norwich about 24 inches (530 billion gallons), and from the Pawcatuck River basin about 26 inches (130 billion gallons). A total average annual runoff of 860 billion gallons is therefore available. Although runoff indicates the total amount of water potentially available, it is usually not economically feasible for man to use all of it. On the other hand, with increased development, it is possible that some water will be reused several times. The water available may be tapped as it flows through the area or is temporarily stored in streams, lakes, and aquifers. The amounts that can be developed vary from place to place and time to time, depending on the amount of precipitation, on the size of drainage area, on the thickness, permeability, and areal extent of aquifers, and on the variations in chemical and physical quality of the water. Differences in streamflow from point to point are due primarily to differences in the proportion of stratified drift in the drainage basin above each point, which affect the timing of streamflow, and to differences in precipitation, which affect the amount of streamflow. Ground water can be obtained from wells almost anywhere in the area, but the amount obtainable at any particular point depends upon the type and water-bearing properties of the aquifers. For practical purposes, the earth materials in the report area comprise three aquifers--stratified drift, bedrock, and till. Stratified drift is the only aquifer generally capable of yielding more than 100 gpm (gallons per minute) to individual wells. It covers about 20 percent of the area and occurs chiefly in lowlands where it overlies till and bedrock. The coefficient of permeability of the coarse-grained unit of stratified drift averages about 1,500 gbd (gallons per day) per sq ft. Drilled, screened wells tapping this unit are known to yield from 4 to 88o gpm and average 146 gpm. Dug wells in coarse-grained stratified drift supply about 2 gpm per foot of drawdown over a period of a few hours. Fine-grained stratified drift has an average coefficient of permeability of about 300 gpd per sq ft and can usually yield supplies sufficient for household use to dug wells. Bedrock and till are widespread in extent but generally provide only small water supplies. Bedrock is tapped chiefly by drilled wells, about 90 percent of which will supply at least 3 gpm. Very few, however, will supply more than 50 gpm. Till is tapped in a few places by dug wells which can yield small supplies of only a few hundred gpd throughout all or most of the year. The coefficient of permeability of till ranges from about 0.2 gpd per sq ft to 120 gpd per sq ft. The amount of ground water potentially available in the report area depends upon the amount of ground-water outflow, the amount of ground water in storage, and the quantity of water available by induced infiltration from streams and lakes. From data on permeability, saturated thickness, recharge, yield from aquifer storage, well performance, and streamflow, preliminary estimates of ground-water availability can be made for any point in the report area. Long-term yields estimated for 18 areas of stratified drift especially favorable for development of large ground-water supplies ranged from 1.3 to 66 mgd. Detailed site studies to determine optimum yields, drawdowns, and spacing of individual wells are needed before major ground-water development is undertaken in these or other areas. The chemical quality of water in the report area is generally good to excellent. Samples of naturally occurring surface water collected at 24 sites contained less than 151 ppm (parts per million) of dissolved solids and less than 63 ppm of hardness. Water from wells is more highly mineralized than naturally occurring water from streams. Even so only 12 percent of the wells sampled yielded water with more than 200 ppm of dissolved solids and only 8 percent yielded water with more than 120 ppm of hardness. Even in major streams, which are used to transport industrial waste, hardness rarely exceeds 60 ppm and the dissolved mineral content is generally less than 200 ppm. At a few places in the town of Montville however, waters may contain dissolved mineral concentrations of 2,000 to 4,000 ppm. Iron and manganese in both ground water and surface water are the only constituents whose concentrations commonly exceed recommended limits for domestic and industrial use. Most wells in the report area yield clear water with little or no iron or manganese, but distributed among them are wells yielding ground water that contains enough of these dissolved constituents to be troublesome for most uses. Iron concentrations in naturally occurring stream water exceed 0.3 ppm under low-flow conditions at 33 percent of the sites sampled. Large concentrations of iron in stream water result from discharge of iron-bearing water from aquifers or from swamps where it is released largely from decaying vegetation. Ground water more than 30 feet below the land surface has a relatively constant temperature, usually between 48°F and 52°F. Water temperature in very shallow wells may fluctuate from about 38°F in February or March to about 55°F in late summer. Water temperature in the larger streams fluctuates much more widely, ranging from 32°F at least for brief periods in winter, to about 85°F occasionally during summer. The quality of suspended sediment transported by streams in the area is negligible. Turbidity in streams is generally not a problem although amounts large enough to be troublesome may occur locally at times. The total amount of water used in the report area for all purposes during 1964 was about 118,260 million gallons, of which 105,600 million gallons was estuarine water used for cooling by industry. The average per capita water use, excluding estuarine, temporary summer residence, and institutional water was equivalent to 186 gpd. Public water systems supplied the domestic needs of nearly tw0-thirds the population of the report area. All of the 19 systems, which were sampled, provided water of better quality than the U.S. Public Health Service suggests for drinking water standards.

Connecticut↗
USGS1968

Dissolved-mineral inflow to Great Salt Lake and chemical characteristics of the salt lake brine: Summary for water years 1960, 1961, and 1964

The investigation of dissolved-mineral inflow to Great Salt Lake during the water years 1960, 1961, and 1964 was conducted during conditions of streamflow that were representative of the lowest and the average recorded during the water years 1934-64. The study conducted during the 1960 and 1961 water years was limited to defining surface-water inflow at sites close to the lakeshore, as well as at sites used in the 1960-6 study. From these comparative data, estimates of inflow at the lakeshore were made for the 1960 and 1961 water years. During the 1964 water year, when inflow to the lake was probably representative of the 31-year period, about 800,000 acre-feet of water containing 2,200,000 tons of dissolved solids entered the lake. During the years of average streamflow, about 500,000 acre-feet of water which might be developed for culinary use, passes the lowest sampling sites on the Bear and Weber Rivers. Also, more than 90 percent of the flow near the mouths of the Bear, Weber, and Jordan Rivers would be suitable for irrigation. Sources of inflow could be selected to provide a water supply for a fresh-water lake east of Antelope Island. The supply would range from 300,000 acre-feet of water containing 800 ppm (parts per million) of dissolved solids during periods of low streamflow to 1 million acre-feet containing 500 ppm during periods of average streamflow.

Utah↗
USGS1957

Military geology in the United States sector of the European theater of operations during World War II

Geology, which was of far-reaching importance on the Western Front of World War I, played a less spectacular role during World War II in so far as the United States armies in Europe were concerned. The U. S. Army in the European Theater of Operations (ETO) used geologists in two capacities: (1) to make staff studies at the level of Theater Headquarters, and (2) as officer personnel in a water-supply unit. In the first category, only one group of seven geologists was employed, forming part of the Information Section, Intelligence Division, Office of the Chief Engineer, ETO. The products of this group consisted largely of regional and localized terrain (trafficability) studies that ranged geographically from the Normandy invasion beaches to Czechoslovakia. Problems of water supply, sources of road material, and many other questions of a geologic nature also arose. French geologists collaborated closely with the work of the section. As the campaign progressed, the Military Geology Unit of the U. S. Geological Survey made important contributions to the geologic intelligence of Germany.

Geological Society of America Bulletin↗
USGS1986

Water resources inventory of Connecticut Part 9: Farmington River basin

The Farmington River basin covers 435 square miles in north-central Connecticut upstream from Tariffville and downstream of the Massachusetts state line. Most water in the basin is derived from precipitation, which averages 48 inches (366 billion gallons) per year. An additional 67 billion gallons of water per year enters the basin from Massachusetts in the West Branch of the Farmington River, Hubbard River, Valley Brook and some smaller streams. Of the total 433 billion gallons, 174 billion gallons returns to the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration. 239 billion gallons flows out of the study area in the Farmington River at Tariffville, and 20 billion gallons is diverted for Hartford water supply. Variations in streamflow at 23 continuous-record gaging stations are summarized in standardized graphs and tables that can be used to estimate streamflow characteristics at other sites. For example, mean flow and low-flow characteristics such as the 7-day annual minimum flow for 2-year and 10-year recurrence intervals, have been determined for many partial-record stations from the data for the 23 continuous-record stations. Of the 31 principal lakes, ponds, and reservoirs in the basin, eight have usable storage capacities of more than 1 billion gallons. Two of the largest, Colebrook River Lake and Barkhamsted Reservoir, have more than 30 billion gallons usable storage. Floods have occurred in the area in every month of the year. The greatest known flood on the Farmington River was in August 1955, which had a peak flow of 140,000 cubic feet per second at Collinsville. Since then, three major floodcontrol reservoirs have been constructed to reduce the hazards of high streamflow. The major aquifers underlying the basin are composed of unconsolidated materials (stratified drift and till) and bedrock (sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic). Stratified drift overlies till and bedrock in valleys and lowlands; it averages about 90 feet in thickness, and is capable of large sustained yields of water to individual wells. Based on hydrologic characteristics and available recharge, sixteen stratified-drift areas are selected as the most favorable for large-scale development. Potential yields can be estimated by several methods. Small water supplies can be obtained from all aquifers. Wells in bedrock yield at least one to two gallons per minute at most sites. The probability of adequate yields for domestic supply is greater from sedimentary than from crystalline bedrock and is also greater from stratified-drift overburden than from till. The quality of water from all sources in the basin is good except where adversely affected by swamp drainage, aquifer composition or human activities. The water is generally low in dissolved-solids concentration and is soft to moderately hard. Surface water is less mineralized than ground water, especially during high-flow conditions when it is primarily direct runoff. Samples of water collected from 20 streams during high flow had 34 mg/L median dissolved-solids concentration and 16 mg/L median hardness. Samples collected from the same sites at low flow had 52 mg/L median dissolved solids and 28 mg/L median hardness. In contrast, water from wells had 112 mg/L median dissolved-solids concentration and 60 mg/L median hardness. Iron and manganese occur in objectionable concentrations ~n a few parts of the basin where streams drain swamps and aquifers are rich in iron- and manganese-bearing minerals. Five percent of streams at high flow, 21 percent at low flow, and 7 percent of ground-water samples contained iron in sufficient concentration to cause stains on plumbing fixtures and laundry. Human activities have modified the quality of water in parts of the basin. The high bacterial content of the Pequabuck River. and the high nitrate and chloride concentrations in some ground-water samples, are evidence of man’s influence. The quantity and quality of water in the basin’s streams and aquifers are satisfactory for a wide variety of uses. and, with suitable treatment, may be used for most purposes. The total amount of water used by 21 principal public supplies within the basin was 29 billion gallons in 1970. About 70 percent of this was used for domestic and commercial purposes, and nearly 30 percent was used by industry. Analyses of water from these systems show good quality.

Connecticut↗
USGS2019

A scale to characterize the strength and impacts of atmospheric rivers

Atmospheric rivers (ARs) play vital roles in the western United States and related regions globally, not only producing heavy precipitation and flooding, but also providing beneficial water supply. This paper introduces a scale for the intensity and impacts of ARs. Its utility may be greatest where ARs are the most impactful storm type and hurricanes, nor’easters, and tornadoes are nearly nonexistent. Two parameters dominate the hydrologic outcomes and impacts of ARs: vertically integrated water vapor transport (IVT) and AR duration [i.e., the duration of at least minimal AR conditions (IVT ≥ 250 kg m –1 s –1 )]. The scale uses an observed or predicted time series of IVT at a given geographic location and is based on the maximum IVT and AR duration at that point during an AR event. AR categories 1–5 are defined by thresholds for maximum IVT (3-h average) of 250, 500, 750, 1,000, and 1,250 kg m –1 s –1 , and by IVT exceeding 250 kg m –1 s –1 continuously for 24–48 h. If the AR event duration is less than 24 h, it is downgraded by one category. If it is longer than 48 h, it is upgraded one category. The scale recognizes that weak ARs are often mostly beneficial because they can enhance water supply and snowpack, while stronger ARs can become mostly hazardous, for example, if they strike an area with antecedent conditions that enhance vulnerability, such as burn scars or wet conditions. Extended durations can enhance impacts. Short durations can mitigate impacts.

Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society↗
USGS1985

Reducing losses from earthquakes through personal preparedness

Actions to reduce earthquake hazards can be divided into five phases:two occur before the event, one during the event, and two after the event. The phases are: (1) Mitigation techniques taken anywhere from 1 to 20 years before the event, (2) preparedness measures taken 1 to 20 weeks before the event, (3) response during the actual event, (4) recovery operations over 1 to 20 weeks, and (5) reconstruction activities taken from 1 to 20 years. The magnitude of the earthquake and the resources available to communities and individuals will very these times. A prerequisite to personal preparedness is familiarity with and concern about the other hazard-reduction phases. Strengthening the structure of the home, storing water, and showing family members how to shut off utility-supply lines are only a part of personal preparedness. Equally important are other phases such as picking up children from an evacuated school, securing heavy objects at the work palce as well as in the home, and retrofitting the commuter-highway overpasses needed to reunite a family.

Earthquake Information Bulletin (USGS)↗
USGS1997

Sequence stratigraphic distribution of coaly rocks: Fundamental controls and paralic examples

Significant volumes of terrigenous organic matter can be preserved to form coals only when and where the overall increase in accommodation approximately equals the production rate of peat. Accommodation is a function of subsidence and base level. For mires, base level is very specifically the groundwater table. In paralic settings, the groundwater table is strongly controlled by sea level and the precipitation/evaporation ratio. Peat accumulates over a range of rates, but always with a definite maximum rate set by original organic productivity and space available below depositional base level (groundwater table). Below a threshold accommodation rate (nonzero), no continuous peats accumulate, due to falling or low groundwater table, sedimentary bypass, and extensive erosion by fluvial channels. This is typical of upper highstand, lowstand fan, and basal lowstand-wedge systems tracts. Higher accommodation rates provide relatively stable conditions with rising groundwater tables. Mires initiate and thrive, quickly filling local accommodation vertically and expanding laterally, favoring accumulation of laterally continuous coals in paralic zones within both middle lowstand and middle highstand systems tracts. If the accommodation increase balances or slightly exceeds organic productivity, mires accumulate peat vertically, yielding thicker, more isolated coals most likely during of late lowstand-early transgressive and late transgressive-early highstand periods. At very large accommodation increases, mires are stressed and eventually inundated by clastics or standing water (as in middle transgressive systems tracts). These relations should be valid for mires in all settings, including alluvial, lake plain, and paralic. The tie to sea level in paralic zones depends on local subsidence, sediment supply, and groundwater regimes. These concepts are also useful for investigating the distribution of seal and reservoir facies in nonmarine settings.

American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulle↗
USGS2014

Methods for estimating magnitude and frequency of floods in Arizona, developed with unregulated and rural peak-flow data through water year 2010

Flooding is among the worst natural disasters responsible for loss of life and property in Arizona, underscoring the importance of accurate estimation of flood magnitude for proper structural design and floodplain mapping. Twenty-four years of additional peak-flow data have been recorded since the last comprehensive regional flood frequency analysis conducted in Arizona. Periodically, flood frequency estimates and regional regression equations must be revised to maintain the accurate estimation of flood frequency and magnitude. Annual peak-flow data collected through water year 2010 were compiled from 448 unregulated streamflow-gaging stations, hereafter referred to as streamgages, in Arizona having a minimum of 10 years of record. Flood frequency estimates were first computed with station (or at-site) skew using the Expected Moments Algorithm with a multiple Grubbs-Beck test to identify multiple potentially influential low flows to fit a Pearson Type III distribution. Next, a multiple step Bayesian least-squares-regression approach was used to determine a new statewide regional skew of −0.09. No basin characteristics analyzed were statistically significant in explaining the variation in skew and as a result, the constant model was chosen as the best regional skew model for the Arizona study area. The mean square error used in Bulletin 17B (B17B) of the Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data is used to describe the precision of the regional skew. The constant model had a mean square error equal to 0.08, which corresponds to an effective record length of 85 years. This is a marked improvement over a previous Arizona regional skew analysis, with a reported mean square error of 0.31, for a corresponding effective record length of around 17 years. Thus the new regional model had almost five times the information content (as measured by effective record length) of that calculated in USGS Water Supply Paper 2433, published in 1997, or the value of 0.302 reported in the B17B generalized skew map. The flood frequency estimates were recalculated using a weighted skew of the station and regional skew. Station flood frequency estimates for each streamgage are presented for the 50-, 20-, 10-, 4-, 2-, 1-, 0.5-, and 0.2-percent annual exceedance probabilities. Geographical information systems were used to compute basin characteristic information for each streamgage for the purpose of developing regional equations to estimate flood statistics at ungaged basins. Five hydrologic flood regions in Arizona were defined in a multivariate regionalization process based on mean basin elevation, mean annual precipitation, and soil permeability. A regional generalized least-squares-regression analysis was used to develop five sets of equations from 344 nonredundant streamgages, corresponding to five regions, for estimating the 50-, 20-, 10-, 4-, 2-, 1-, 0.5-, and 0.2-percent annual exceedance probabilities at ungaged basins in Arizona. The regression equations developed for these five regions were based on one or more of the statistically significant explanatory variables: drainage area, mean basin elevation, and mean annual precipitation. Average standard errors of prediction for the regression regions for the five regions ranged from 27 to 122 percent and the pseudo-coefficients of determination (pseudo-R 2 ), a measure of the proportion of peak-flow variation that is explained by the basin characteristics, ranged from 68 to 98 percent. Regression equations for Central Highlands (region 4) had the lowest model error and the greatest pseudo-R 2 metrics. The equations for Colorado Plateau (region 2) regression equations generally had greater model error and lower pseudo-R 2 metrics. The improvement of regional regression equation model error and pseudo-R 2 metrics was related to higher numbers of streamgages, longer period of record, and even spatial coverage within a region. The regional regression equations were integrated into the U.S. Geological Survey’s StreamStats program. The StreamStats program is a national map-based web application that allows the public to easily access published flood frequency and basin characteristic statistics. The interactive web application allows a user to select a point within a watershed (gaged or ungaged) and retrieve flood-frequency estimates derived from the current regional regression equations and geographic information system data within the selected basin. StreamStats provides users with an efficient and accurate means for retrieving the most up to date flood frequency and basin characteristic data. StreamStats is intended to provide consistent statistics, minimize user error, and reduce the need for large datasets and costly geographic information system software.

Arizona↗
USGS1982

Water resources inventory of Connecticut Part 10: Lower Connecticut River basin

The lower Connecticut River basin study area in south-central Connecticut includes 639 square miles and is drained principally by the Connecticut River and by seven smaller streams that flow directly to Long Island Sound between the West River on the west and the Connecticut River on the east. The population in 1979 was estimated to be 210,380. Much of the industrial development and population centers are in the Mattabesset River basin in the northwestern part, and the largest water use is also in the Mattabesset River basin. Precipitation averages 47 inches per year and provides an abundant supply of water. About 20 inches returns to the atmosphere as evapotranspiration, and the remainder either flows directly to streams or percolates to the water table, eventually discharging to Long Island Sound. Small quantities of water are exported from the basin by the New Haven and Meridan Water Departments, and small quantities are imported by the New Britain Water Department and Metropolitan Direct Commission. Precipitation during 1931-60 resulted in an average annual runoff of 302 billion gallons. In inflow from the Connecticut River is added to the average annual runoff, the 4,370 billion gallon s per year is potentially available for water ue. The domestic, institutional, commercial, and industrial (other than cooling water) water use for 1970 was 7 billion gallons, which is only 3 percent of the total water used, whereas 97 percent of the total is cooling water for power plants. Approximately 60 percent of the 7 billion gallons is treated before being discharged back to the streams. The total amount of fresh water used during 1970 was estimated to be 256,000 million gallons (Mgal), of which 247,000 Mgal was used for cooling water at stream electric-generating plants. The quantity for domestic, commercial, industrial, and agricultural used was 9,000 Mgal, which was approximately 120 gallons a day per person. Public water systems providing 70 percent of these requirement and all the systems supplying water met the drinking water standards of the Connecticut General Assembly (1975). Till is widespread and generally provides only small amounts of water. Wells in till normally yield only a few hundred gallons of water daily and may be inadequate during dry periods. The thickness of of till ranges from 0 to 15 feet; a median thickness of 26 feet is estimated from information provided in drillers' logs of 467 wells penetrating underlying bedrock. The till is generally used only as an emergency or secondary source of water. Bedrock aquifers underlie the entire area and include sedimentary and crystalline (igneous and metamorphic) rock types. These aquifers supply small and usually reliable quantities of water to wells and are the chief source of water for many rural homes and farms., About 90 percent of the wells tapping bedrock yield at least 2 gal/min. The median yields from wells tapping aquifers in sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks are 11, 8, and 6.5 gal/min, respectively. The quantity of water potentially available from stratified drift was estimated on the basis of hydraulic characteristics of the aquifers, mathematical modeling of the aquifer system, and evaluation of natural and induced recharge. Long-term yields estimated or ten areas underlain by significant thickness of stratified drift range from 0.4 to 4.4 million gallons per day (Mgal/d). A change in well spacing or numbering could increase the long-term yields, but detailed modeling verification studies are needed to confirm optimal well locations. The chemical and physical (turbidity, color, taste, and sediment load) quality of water is good. The water if generally low in dissolved solids and is classified as soft to hard. Surface water is less mineralized than ground water, especially during high flow, when it is primarily derived from surface runoff rather than groundwater runoff. A median dissolved-solids concentration of 42 milligrams per liter (mg/L) and median hardness of 18 mg/L were determined from water samples collected from 26 streams during the high-flow period. During the low-flow period, median dissolved-solids concentration of 61 mg/L and median hardness of 27 mg/L were determined from sample from the same streams. The quality of water in stratified-drift and crystalline-rock aquifers is generally better than that in the sedimentary-rock aquifers. Water from 32 wells tapping stratified drift had median dissolved-solids concentrations of 116 mg/L; and 33 wells tapping stratified drift and 42 tapping crystalline rock had median hardness of 73 mg/L and 68 mg/L, respectively. Water from 32 wells tapping sedimentary rock had median dissolved concentrations of 231 and 156 mg/L, respectively. Sedimentary rock generally yields the hardest water. Iron and manganese occur objectionable concentrations in places, particularly in water from streams draining swamps and in water from aquifers either rich in iron and manganese-nearing minerals or where the reducing environment for solution of these minerals is favorable. Concentrations of iron in excess of 0.3 mg/L were found in 35 percent of the high streamflow samples, and in 45 percent of the ground-water samples. Most of the high iron and manganese concentration in streams and aquifers are found east of the Connecticut River. Human activities and tidal influence along the coast have modified the quality of water in much f the study area. The greatest influence from human activities has been in the northwestern part, in the Mattabesset River basin. There, the quality of water has been affected by domestic and animal wastes, which cause high dissolved-solids concentrations, high nitrate and phosphate loads and high bacterial counts. In the entire area, high nitrate in groundwater occur only locally, and its presence in an individual water supply is chiefly a function of its proximity to sources of contamination, of well construction, and of thickness of overburden. Thirty public-supply wells did have water that had high sodium concentrations or objectionable iron and manganese concentrations, but these are not considered health hazards in the concentrations found in the water samples. Streams, wetlands, and some aquifers along the sough boundary of the basin contain salty water because of tidal movement or extensive ground-water withdrawals. High sediment concentrations also occur as a result of tidal influence in this area.

Connecticut↗
USGS1940

Ground-water resources of Kansas

Introduction: Water is a necessity of life. Accordingly, every person is deeply interested in the subject of water supply. He knows that he must have water to drink. He depends indirectly on water for all his food and clothing. He may want water in which to wash. Civilized man has learned also that water serves admirably for a large and ever enlarging list of uses that depend on its easy convertibility from a liquid to a solid or gaseous state and its adaptability as a chemical solvent, a medium for transfer of matter or energy, and a regulator of temperature. The average consumption of water in towns and cities of the United States amounts to about 100 gallons per person per day. Because of long familiarity with never-failing supplies of water provided by nature, or equally, because of unthinking dependence on others, many individuals are probably unaware of their interest in water, but let water become difficult or impossible to obtain, or let the quality of water be greatly changed, and there is immediate concern. Many Kansas persons — without doubt too many — give little thought to the subject of water when rainfall is normal and when ponds and streams are full, but not too full. Kansas has a smaller natural water supply than many other regions, but we are used to these conditions, and it is strongly marked departures from what we regard as normal that cause anxiety. Periods of excessive heat and drought such as have recurred in Kansas, especially during the last half-dozen years, bring hardships to very many persons, particularly dwellers on the farm. Alarm is felt when field crops and pasture shrivel from lack of moisture and from heat, when there is insufficient water for the stock, when wells go dry, and when even some towns and cities must haul water in tank cars. Everyone is then water-conscious, as is true also under reverse conditions, when overabundance of rainfall produces disastrous floods. It is obvious, however, that the subject of water supply should not be given attention only in times of deficiency or overabundance. All citizens of Kansas should have enduring interest in quests of water control and conservation that will make for equable supply. No individual or government agency can increase or diminish the annual rainfall, nor safeguard wholly against floods. It is possible, on the other hand, largely to avoid the distress due to severe shortage of water in recent years. This statement calls attention to the subject of water in the ground, or as commonly known, ground water. I have been asked to discuss the underground water resources of Kansas. I am asked to give answers to such questions as: In what places and under what conditions may water that is suitable for domestic and stock use be obtained from wells? Why are some water wells in Kansas never-failing large producers of excellent waters, whereas other yield only small amounts of poor water and readily go dry? What improvements are possible in methods of finding and utilizing the ground-water resources that exist in Kansas? What provisions can be made to safeguard best against effects of prolonged drought? These questions call for a discussion of some general principles that apply to accumulation and movement of water beneath the surface of in Kansas, and especially to the various geologic conditions that are fundamental factors in controlling variation in water supply from the below ground. It will be desirable also to consider the characteristics of various districts in Kansas that may be differentiated as natural ground-water provinces, pointing out the distinguishing features of these districts. The basis for these distinctions is a difference in water-supply conditions that depends mainly on variation in underground rock structure. Importance of ground-water resources. — The importance of Kansas' ground-water resources may be emphasized from various viewpoints and in different ways. More than three-fourths of the public water supplies of Kansas are obtained from wells. In 1939, only 60 out of 375 municipal water supplies in Kansas, which is 16 percent, utilized surface waters. If the water wells of the cities and those located on all privately owned land in the state were suddenly destroyed, making it necessary to go to streams, springs, lakes (which are almost all artificial), and ponds for water supply domestic, stock, and industrial use, there would be almost incalculable difficulty and expense. If one could not go to springs, or dig new wells, or use any surface water derived from underground flow, much of Kansas would become uninhabitable. These suggested conditions seem absurd, but they emphasize our dependence on ground-water resources. Fromm a quantitative standpoint, ground-water supplies existent in Kansas far outweigh surface waters that are present in the state at any one time. No exact figures for such comparison can be given, but, taking 384 square miles as the total surface water area of the state and estimating an average water depth of five feet, the computed volume of surface waters is found to be 1/100th of that of the conservatively estimated ground-water storage in Kansas. The latter takes account only of potable fresh water and is based on an assumed mean thickness of ten feet of reservoir having an effective porosity of twenty percent. It is to be remembered, however, that most of the surface water is run-off, which soon leaves the state, stream valleys being replenished from rainfall and flow from ground-water reservoirs. Most of the ground-water supplies, on the other hand, have existed for many years with almost no appreciable movement--in fact, it is reasonably certain that some well water drawn from beneath the surface of Kansas in 1940 represents rainfall in this region at time before the first white man entered Kansas, even before the visit of Coronado in the 16th century. Most ground water is to be regarded as water in storage rather than water in transit.

Kansas↗
USGS1964

Inventory of published and unpublished chemical analyses of surface waters in the continental United States and Puerto Rico, 1961

This inventory contains a list of published and unpublished chemical analyses obtained through September 30, 1961, by agencies associated with the Subcommittee on Hydrology. Bulletin 6 of Subcommittee on Hydrology includes references to all surface-water analyses for states east of the Mississippi River known to exist in the files of Federal agencies through September 30, 1951. Records of analyses of surface waters for states west of the Mississippi River are included in Bulletins 2 and 9 of the Subcommittee. Bulletin 2 includes the period of record prior to October 1, 1947, and Bulletin 9 includes the period from October 1, 1947, to September 30, 1955. Therefore, the earliest date for which references to data are included in this volume varies from October 1951 for states east of the Mississippi River (including Minnesota) to October 1, 1955, for states west of the Mississippi River. Analyses of water from Alaska and Puerto Rico were not reported in earlier inventories. An attempt was made to include available analyses obtained in Alaska since October 1951, but additional chemical determinations of water in Alaska that are not inventoried in this report were undoubtedly made in years prior to 1951. Requests concerning specific records not reported herein should be directed to offices having responsibility in the area. This publication is patterned after preceding bulletins as far as practicable. The contents include a list of sampling stations and locations, drainage area above each station, period of record, number and frequency of samples collected, number of analytical values reported in each group arranged according to general types or purposes, and a list of references to the sources of basic data.

Water Supply Paper↗