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USGS2011

Oil and gas resource potential north of the Arctic Circle

The US Geological Survey recently assessed the potential for undiscovered conventional petroleum in the Arctic. Using a new map compilation of sedimentary elements, the area north of the Arctic Circle was subdivided into 70 assessment units, 48 of which were quantitatively assessed. The Circum-Arctic Resource Appraisal (CARA) was a geologically based, probabilistic study that relied mainly on burial history analysis and analogue modelling to estimate sizes and numbers of undiscovered oil and gas accumulations. The results of the CARA suggest the Arctic is gas-prone with an estimated 770–2990 trillion cubic feet of undiscovered conventional natural gas, most of which is in Russian territory. On an energy-equivalent basis, the quantity of natural gas is more than three times the quantity of oil and the largest undiscovered gas field is expected to be about 10 times the size of the largest undiscovered oil field. In addition to gas, the gas accumulations may contain an estimated 39 billion barrels of liquids. The South Kara Sea is the most prospective gas assessment unit, but giant gas fields containing more than 6 trillion cubic feet of recoverable gas are possible at a 50% chance in 10 assessment units. Sixty per cent of the estimated undiscovered oil resource is in just six assessment units, of which the Alaska Platform, with 31% of the resource, is the most prospective. Overall, the Arctic is estimated to contain between 44 and 157 billion barrels of recoverable oil. Billion barrel oil fields are possible at a 50% chance in seven assessment units. Undiscovered oil resources could be significant to the Arctic nations, but are probably not sufficient to shift the world oil balance away from the Middle East.

Geological Society Memoir↗
USGS2006

Deep Europe today: Geophysical synthesis of the upper mantle structure and lithospheric processes over 3.5 Ga

We present a summary of geophysical models of the subcrustal lithosphere of Europe. This includes the results from seismic (reflection and refraction profiles, P- and S-wave tomography, mantle anisotropy), gravity, thermal, electromagnetic, elastic and petrological studies of the lithospheric mantle. We discuss major tectonic processes as reflected in the lithospheric structure of Europe, from Precambrian terrane accretion and subduction to Phanerozoic rifting, volcanism, subduction and continent-continent collision. The differences in the lithospheric structure of Precambrian and Phanerozoic Europe, as illustrated by a comparative analysis of different geophysical data, are shown to have both a compositional and a thermal origin. We propose an integrated model of physical properties of the European subcrustal lithosphere, with emphasis on the depth intervals around 150 and 250 km. At these depths, seismic velocity models, constrained by body-and surface-wave continent-scale tomography, are compared with mantle temperatures and mantle gravity anomalies. This comparison provides a framework for discussion of the physical or chemical origin of the major lithospheric anomalies and their relation to large-scale tectonic processes, which have formed the present lithosphere of Europe. ?? The Geological Society of London 2006.

Geological Society Memoir↗
USGS2006

Tectonic models for Yucca Mountain, Nevada

Performance of a high-level nuclear waste repository at Yucca Mountain hinges partly on long-term structural stability of the mountain, its susceptibility to tectonic disruption that includes fault displacement, seismic ground motion, and igneous intrusion. Because of the uncertainty involved with long-term (10,000 yr minimum) prediction of tectonic events (e.g., earthquakes) and the incomplete understanding of the history of strain and its mechanisms in the Yucca Mountain region, a tectonic model is needed. A tectonic model should represent the structural assemblage of the mountain in its tectonic setting and account for that assemblage through a history of deformation in which all of the observed deformation features are linked in time and space. Four major types of tectonic models have been proposed for Yucca Mountain: a caldera model; simple shear (detachment fault) models; pure shear (planar fault) models; and lateral shear models. Most of the models seek to explain local features in the context of well-accepted regional deformation mechanisms. Evaluation of the models in light of site characterization shows that none of them completely accounts for all the known tectonic features of Yucca Mountain or is fully compatible with the deformation history. The Yucca Mountain project does not endorse a preferred tectonic model. However, most experts involved in the probabilistic volcanic hazards analysis and the probabilistic seismic hazards analysis preferred a planar fault type model. ?? 2007 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

Memoir of the Geological Society of America↗
USGS2010

Comparative analysis of the geological evolution of the northern and southern Appalachian orogen: Late Ordovician-Permian

Review of the major post-Middle Ordovician lithotectonic elements of the Appalachian orogen indicates that the middle to late Paleozoic geologic evolution of the Appalachian margin was less uniform than that of the early Paleozoic. Evolutionary divergence betweenthe northern and southern segments of the orogen started in the Late Ordovician to Silurian with staggered accretion of the first peri-Gondwanan elements to reach the Laurentia margin, Carolinia in the south and Ganderia in the north. Divergence was amplified duringthe Silurian, specifi cally with respect to the nature of the Laurentian margin and the history of accretion. During this time frame, the northern margin was convergent, whereas the amagmatic southern margin may well have been a transform boundary. In terms of accretion, the Late Silurian-Early Devonian docking of Avalonia was restricted to the northern segment, whereas the southern Appalachians appear to have been largely quiescent during this interval. The evolutionary paths of the two segments of the margin converge on a commonhistory in the Late Devonian during the Famennian event; we suggest that this tectonism was related to the initial marginwide interaction of Laurentia with the peri-Gondwanan blocks of Meguma and Suwanee, providing a uniform tectonic template for margin evolution. The Laurentian-Gondwanan collision is marked by second-order divergences in history. Specifi cally, during the Carboniferous, the southern segment records a larger component of shortening than the northern Appalachians. ?? 2010 Geological Society of America.

Memoir of the Geological Society of America↗
USGS2006

Yucca Mountain, Nevada - A proposed geologic repository for high-level radioactive waste

Yucca Mountain in Nevada represents the proposed solution to what has been a lengthy national effort to dispose of high-level radioactive waste, waste which must be isolated from the biosphere for tens of thousands of years. This chapter reviews the background of that national effort and includes some discussion of international work in order to provide a more complete framework for the problem of waste disposal. Other chapters provide the regional geologic setting, the geology of the Yucca Mountain site, the tectonics, and climate (past, present, and future). These last two chapters are integral to prediction of long-term waste isolation. ?? 2007 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

Memoir of the Geological Society of America↗
USGS2006

Geology of the Yucca Mountain region

Yucca Mountain has been proposed as the site for the nation's first geologic repository for high-level radioactive waste. This chapter provides the geologic framework for the Yucca Mountain region. The regional geologic units range in age from late Precambrian through Holocene, and these are described briefly. Yucca Mountain is composed dominantly of pyroclastic units that range in age from 11.4 to 15.2 Ma. The proposed repository would be constructed within the Topopah Spring Tuff, which is the lower of two major zoned and welded ash-flow tuffs within the Paintbrush Group. The two welded tuffs are separated by the partly to nonwelded Pah Canyon Tuff and Yucca Mountain Tuff, which together figure prominently in the hydrology of the unsaturated zone. The Quaternary deposits are primarily alluvial sediments with minor basaltic cinder cones and flows. Both have been studied extensively because of their importance in predicting the long-term performance of the proposed repository. Basaltic volcanism began ca. 10 Ma and continued as recently as ca. 80 ka with the eruption of cones and flows at Lathrop Wells, ???10 km south-southwest of Yucca Mountain. Geologic structure in the Yucca Mountain region is complex. During the latest Paleozoic and Mesozoic, strong compressional forces caused tight folding and thrust faulting. The present regional setting is one of extension, and normal faulting has been active from the Miocene through to the present. There are three major local tectonic domains: (1) Basin and Range, (2) Walker Lane, and (3) Inyo-Mono. Each domain has an effect on the stability of Yucca Mountain. ?? 2007 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

Memoir of the Geological Society of America↗
USGS1999

Chapter 6 Geochemistry, isotopic composition and petrogenetic modelling of the Thera pyroclastics

This chapter examines the major element, trace element, and isotope geochemistry of the Thera pyroclastics, and places it in the context of the geochemical evolution of the whole volcanic field. Geochemical studies to date have been undertaken predominantly on the lavas, and the pyroclastic succession has been relatively neglected. The data on the pyroclastics are taken from Druitt (1983), Mellors (1988), Pyle (19906), and Edwards (1994). Wholerock analyses and sample descriptions are given in Appendix 2. Most analyses are of a single pumice or scoria lump, although some are combinations of several small clasts and a few are compositionally banded. The rock classification scheme used throughout the memoir is shown in Fig. 6.1. Previous isotopic studies on Santorini are also largely confined to the lavas, and no detailed studies had been carried out on the pyroclastic rocks. In this chapter we present new 87 Sr/ 86 Sr, 143 Nd/ 144 Nd, 206 Pb/ 204 Pb, 207 Pb/ 204 Pb, 208 Pb/ 204 Pb and δ 18 О isotopic data on 40 samples of the Thera pyroclastics. We also include some measurements of hydrogen isotopes. Methods of geochemical and isotopic analysis are described in Appendix 1. This chapter also presents some quantitative models of fractional crystallization and assimilation of crustal rocks. The geochemical data and models point towards the importance of crystal fractionation, magma mixing and assimilation of continental crust in magma genesis at Santorini. The chapter also documents temporal changes in geochemical features of Santorini magmas.

Santorini↗
USGS1999

Chapter 1: Previous research

Santorini has fascinated and stimulated explorers and scholars since ancient times. Jason and the Argonauts were apparently visitors to the islands and described a giant called Talos. Molten metal flowed from his feet and he threw stones at them. The island is perhaps best known for the paroxysmal eruption that took place in the Late Bronze Age at the height of the Minoan civilization that dominated Crete and the Aegean region. The legend of Atlantis, in which a whole city sank beneath the sea in a single day and night, is plausibly based on the effects of this eruption on the Minoan Civilization. The geographer Strabo described the eruption of 197 bc in the following way: ... for midway between Thera and Therasia fires broke forth from the sea and continued for four days, so that the whole sea boiled and blazed, and the fires cast up an island which was gradually elevated as though by levers and consisted of burning masses... This introduction gives a brief synopsis of research on the volcano since this dramatic chronicle was written. Research on Santorini has contributed substantial advances not only in the understanding of Santorini itself but to general principles in volcanology and petrology. three centres for lava eruptions on Therasia and northern Thera: the Peristeria, Simandiri and Skaros-Therasia Volcanoes.

Santorini↗
USGS1999

Chapter 2: Geological and tectonic setting of Santorini

Santorini lies in an area of complex extensional and subduction-related tectonics in a continental environment (Jackson 1994). The region has had a long geological history with large changes occurring during the Alpine orogeny and in the Late Tertiary as a consequence of post-collisional extension and major re-adjustments of the plate boundaries. The Aegean region is thought to be moving towards the southwest where the Aegean microplate overrides the Eastern Mediterranean sea floor. The collision has created the Hellenic trench to the south of Crete where the eastern Mediterranean sea floor is subducting beneath the Aegean Sea at 5-6 cm a-1. Santorini is one of several Quaternary volcanoes that define the present day active volcanic arc related to this subduction zone (Fig. 2.1). We here provide a synopsis of the broader geological and tectonic context of Santorini within the Aegean area. The geology, isotope geochemistry and geochronology of the crystalline basement of the southern Aegean is of particular relevance as it is likely that the Santorini magmas have interacted extensively with the continental crust. Geochemical evidence presented in Chapters 6 and 7 confirms this prediction. We also give a synopsis of the Quaternary Aegean Island Arc, of which Santorini is the most active centre.

Santorini↗
USGS1999

Chapter 3: Development of the Santorini volcanic field in space and time

Santorini is one of the largest Quaternary volcanic centres of the Aegean Region. The caldera cliffs preserve well-exposed sequences of lavas and pyroclastic deposits, which record the long development of the volcano in space and time. These include the products of 12 major explosive eruptions and the dissected remains of several ancient lava shields, stratovolcanoes, and lava-dome complexes. The former existence of multiple eruptive centres scattered over the present-day islands shows that Santorini is best considered as a volcanic field , which probably also continues under the sea (Heiken & McCoy 1984). Santorini is best known for the Minoan eruption of the late Bronze Age (Bond & Sparks 1976; Heiken & McCoy 1984; Sparks & Wilson 1990), but some of the previous explosive eruptions may have been as large (Druitt et al . 1989). The occurrence of repeated explosive eruptions has triggered formation of at least four large calderas, such that the present-day caldera is a composite structure (Druitt & Francaviglia 1992). Santorini is potentially one of the most dangerous volcanoes in Europe, having had numerous eruptions in historic times, some of them with significant explosive components (Fytikas et al . 1990 a ).

Santorini↗
USGS1999

Chapter 4: Compositional zoning and petrology of the Thera pyroclastics

Compositional zoning is a common feature of pyroclastic deposits erupted from calderas worldwide (Smith 1979; Hildreth 1981; Bacon & Druitt 1988; De Silva 1991; Feeley & Davidson 1994). Compositionally zoned tuffs provide a geologically instantaneous snapshot of the vertical stratigraphy and density stratification in the chamber immediately before eruption. Magma bodies are commonly zoned in density, with light, relatively cool, silicic magma overlying hotter, more mafic magma. Vertical zonation can arise by a number of processes, including crystallization and convective fractionation on the chamber.

Santorini↗
USGS1999

Chapter 5: Cumulate nodules in the Thera pyroclastics

Gabbroic and dioritic nodules are common in some horizons of the Thera pyroclastics. These nodules contain pyroxene as the main ferromagnesian phase in contrast to the early Akrotiri centre, which contain nodules with abundant hornblende (Nicholls 1971a; Pichler & Kussmaul 1972). Calcsilicate nodules and gabbroic nodules have also been recognized in Santorini lavas (Fouqu6 1879; Nicholls 1971a). Previous studies of Santorini volcanic rocks indicate that crystal fractionation has played an important role in generating the compositional range basalt-andesite-dacite-rhyodacite (Nicholls 1971a; Mann 1983; Huijsmans 1985; Barton & Huijsmans 1986). This interpretation is also consistent with much of the petrological data presented in Chapter 4 and the geochemical data and models presented in Chapter 6. However, disequilibrium phenocryst assemblages in some lavas (Huijsmans 1985; Chapter 4), banded pumice clasts in many pyroclastic deposits (Druitt et al. 1989; Chapters 4), isotopic disequilibria in phenocrysts (Pyle et al. 1988; Chapters 6 and 7) and complex zoning patterns in plagioclase crystals (Stamatelopoulou-Seymour et al. 1990) indicate that magma mixing has also occurred. In addition, trace element and isotopic abundances can be interpreted in terms of assimilation of continental crust during fractionation (Barton et al. 1983; Stamatelopoulou-Seymour et al. 1990; Chapter 6). The nodules provide information on petrogenetic processes that have influenced the evolution of Santorini magmas. Their petrology is documented in this chapter and compared with that of associated juvenile ejecta. The nodules are identified as cumulates from andesitic and dacitic magmas, con- firming the importance of fractional crystallization in the petrogenesis of Santorini magmas. They also demonstrate that mafic plutonic rocks can be formed from intermediate to silicic magmas.

Santorini↗
USGS1999

Chapter 7: Studies of short-lived radionuclides in Santorini volcanics

Disequilibria between the short-lived radioactive nuclides 226 Ra, 230 Th and 238 U in young volcanic rocks can be used both for dating the time of crystallisation of a rock, and as isotopic tracers of the sources of magmas and the chemical evolution of volcanic systems. The principles of these methods have been reviewed extensively elsewhere (Condomines et al . 1988; Gill et al . 1992; Gill & Condomines 1992; Macdougall 1995). In this chapter, we present new 238 U- 230 Th- 226 Ra disequilibria data for the Thera pyroclastics and for selected lavas. These data complement the radiogenic isotopic data presented in Chapter 6 on the compositional evolution through time of the pyroclastic ejecta. In particular, we find that the ( 230 Th/ 232 Th) isotopic ratio corrected to the time of eruption varies in a systematic way with time through the second cycle of the Thera pyroclastics and variations in this ratio are correlated with the variations of 87 Sr/ 86 Sr, 143 Nd/ 144 Nd and Pb isotopes.

Santorini↗
USGS1999

Chapter 8: The evolution of Santorini

There now follows a synthesis of the main results of this study. We interpret the observations in terms of the interplay between magmatic, tectonic and volcanic processes and place these processes within a global context. Santorini has displayed a wide variety of igneous and volcanic phenomena over a period of at least 650 000 years of almost continuous and focused volcanism. Perhaps the most intriguing issues are the causes of volcanic and magmatic cyclicity, the secular variations in magma composition and the way in which magmatic processes have influenced the style of volcanism.

Santorini↗
USGS1999

Appendix 1: Analytical methods and errors

Thirty eight K-Ar and eight 40Ar/39Ar high-precision age determinations were made at the US Geological Survey, Menlo Park, on a total of 22 rocks from the entire volcanic field. Duplicate or triplicate determinations were carried out on 14 samples in order to improve analytical precision. All ages were measured on whole-rock samples selected after thin-section examination. Most of the samples meet the usual criteria for whole-rock dating (Mankinen © Dal-rymple 1972), but some contain minor amounts of glass and a few samples are very glassy. The samples selected for dating were crushed to 0.5-lmm (-18 to +35 mesh). For K-Ar dating aliquots weighing c. 25 g were used for the Ar measurements. A 10 g aliquot was ground to -200 mesh and splits of the powder were used for K20 measurements, which were made in duplicate on each of two separate splits of sample powder by flame photometry after lithium metaborate fusion and dissolution (Ingamells 1970). Ar analyses were by isotope-dilution mass spectrometry using a high-purity (>99.9%) 38Ar tracer and techniques and equipment described previously (Dalrymple & Lanphere 1969). All samples for Ar extraction were baked overnight at 280°C. Mass analyses were done on a 22.68 cm radius, multiple-collector mass spectrometer with a nominal 90° sector magnet, using automated data collection (Stacey etal 1981). Errors given for the calculated K-Ar ages of individual measurements are estimates of the standard deviation of analytical precision. The errors were calculated using formulae derived by Cox & Dalrymple (1967) and Dalrymple & Lanphere (1969).

Geological Society, London, Memoirs↗
USGS1999

Appendix 2: Tabulated analytical data

Details of analytical methods and errors are given in Appendix 1. bd means below detection and na not analysed. Samples numbers which begin with the letter S are from Druitt (1983) and those that begin with LS are from Edwards (1994). Sample numbers which begin with the number 8 are either from Mellors (1988) or Pyle (1990 b ). Subunits of each major tuff of the Thera pyroclastics are denoted by upper case letters (A to D). These are listed in Table 3.4. In the case of the minor sequences (Appendix 2.3), the sequence abbreviations (M6 to M8) are shown in Fig. 3.17 and the individual unit abbreviations (CD1 to CD10) are from Edwards (1994).

Geological Society, London, Memoirs↗
USGS2003

Current controlled deposition on the Wilkes Land continental rise, Antarctica

Turbidite, contourite and hemipelagic deposition are the main components of Wilkes Land continental rise sedimentation above the regional unconformity WL2. On the continental shelf, unconformity WL2 marks the start of shelf progradation, which is interpreted to correspond with the onset of glacial conditions in this segment of the east Antarctic margin. Unusually large (i.e. up to 900 m relief and 18 km between levee crests) channel-levee deposits, and high relief (up to 490 m) mounded contourite-style deposits develop above unconformity WLlb. Unconformity WLlb overlies unconformity WL2 and is interpreted to have formed under a fully continental glacial regime where ice streams reached the palaeo-continental shelf edge. Based on an analysis of multichannel seismic profiles and sediment cores, we differentiate three phases in the development of the sedimentary unit between WLlb and the present seafloor. From older to younger these are: Phase 1, dominated by turbidite deposition; Phase 2, dominated by turbidite and contourite deposition with significant mound building; and Phase 3, dominated by turbidite and contourite deposition without active mound building. We hypothesize that building of the mounds during Phase 2 corresponded with times of expansion of the Antarctic ice-sheet when vast amounts of sediment were eroded from the continent and continental shelf. The large amount of unsorted glacial sediment supplied to the outer shelf apparently travelled down the slope canyons and rise channels as turbidity current flows to feed the usually large continental rise channel-levee complexes. The suspended fines of the turbidity flows were then entrained in a palaeo-nepheloid layer and carried by the westward flowing palaeo-contour currents until their deposition in the mounds. During Phase 3, sediment supply to the continental rise, although important in volume and capable of turbidite and contour-current deposition, was insufficient to support further building of the mounds. We believe the decrease in sediment supply to the continental rise from Phase 2 to Phase 3 could be the result of a change on sediment depocentres, with most of the sediment supplied to the margin during Phase 3 being trapped on the continental shelf. We believe that ultimately these changes are related to the stage of glacial evolution of the continent.

Geological Society, London, Memoirs↗
USGS2011

Chapter 50 Geology and tectonic development of the Amerasia and Canada Basins, Arctic Ocean

Amerasia Basin is the product of two phases of counterclockwise rotational opening about a pole in the lower Mackenzie Valley of NW Canada. Phase 1 opening brought ocean–continent transition crust (serpentinized peridotite?) to near the seafloor of the proto-Amerasia Basin, created detachment on the Eskimo Lakes Fault Zone of the Canadian Arctic margin and thinned the continental crust between the fault zone and the proto-Amerasia Basin to the west, beginning about 195 Ma and ending prior to perhaps about 160 Ma. The symmetry of the proto-Amerasia Basin was disrupted by clockwise rotation of the Chukchi Microcontinent into the basin from an original position along the Eurasia margin about a pole near 72°N, 165 W about 145.5–140 Ma. Phase 2 opening enlarged the proto-Amerasia Basin by intrusion of mid-ocean ridge basalt along its axis between about 131 and 127.5 Ma. Following intrusion of the Phase 2 crust an oceanic volcanic plateau, the Alpha–Mendeleev Ridge LIP (large igneous province), was extruded over the northern Amerasia Basin from about 127 to 89–75 Ma. Emplacement of the LIP halved the area of the Amerasia Basin, and the area lying south of the LIP became the Canada Basin.

Geological Society, London, Memoirs↗