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Faults & earthquakes

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At least 253 records · Page 14Linked to original sources

USGS2003

Slip rate and earthquake recurrence along the central Septentrional fault, North American-Caribbean plate boundary, Dominican Republic

The Septentrional fault zone (SFZ) is the major North American-Caribbean, strike-slip, plate boundary fault at the longitude of eastern Hispaniola. The SFZ traverses the densely populated Cibao Valley of the Dominican Republic, forming a prominent scarp in alluvium. Our studies at four sites along the central SFZ are aimed at quantifying the late Quaternary behavior of this structure to better understand the seismic hazard it represents for the northeastern Caribbean. Our investigations of excavations at sites near Rio Cenovi show that the most recent ground-rupturing earthquake along this fault in the north central Dominican Republic occurred between A.D. 1040 and A.D. 1230, and involved a minimum of ???4 m of left-lateral slip and 2.3 m of normal dip slip at that site. Our studies of offset stream terraces at two locations, Rio Juan Lopez and Rio Licey, provide late Holocene slip rate estimates of 6-9 mm/yr and a maximum of 11-12 mm/yr, respectively, across the Septentrional fault. Combining these results gives a best estimate of 6-12 mm/yr for the slip rate across the SFZ. Three excavations, two near Tenares and one at the Rio Licey site, yielded evidence for the occurrence of earlier prehistoric earthquakes. Dates of strata associated with the penultimate event suggest that it occurred post-A.D. 30, giving a recurrence interval of 800-1200 years. These studies indicate that the SFZ has likely accumulated elastic strain sufficient to generate a major earthquake during the more than 800 years since it last slipped and should be considered likely to produce a destructive future earthquake.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗

USGS2004

Dynamic rupture modeling of the transition from thrust to strike-slip motion in the 2002 Denali fault earthquake, Alaska

We use three-dimensional dynamic (spontaneous) rupture models to investigate the nearly simultaneous ruptures of the Susitna Glacier thrust fault and the Denali strike-slip fault. With the 1957 Mw 8.3 Gobi-Altay, Mongolia, earthquake as the only other well-documented case of significant, nearly simultaneous rupture of both thrust and strike-slip faults, this feature of the 2002 Denali fault earthquake provides a unique opportunity to investigate the mechanisms responsible for development of these large, complex events. We find that the geometry of the faults and the orientation of the regional stress field caused slip on the Susitna Glacier fault to load the Denali fault. Several different stress orientations with oblique right-lateral motion on the Susitna Glacier fault replicate the triggering of rupture on the Denali fault about 10 sec after the rupture nucleates on the Susitna Glacier fault. However, generating slip directions compatible with measured surface offsets and kinematic source inversions requires perturbing the stress orientation from that determined with focal mechanisms of regional events. Adjusting the vertical component of the principal stress tensor for the regional stress field so that it is more consistent with a mixture of strike-slip and reverse faulting significantly improves the fit of the slip-rake angles to the data. Rotating the maximum horizontal compressive stress direction westward appears to improve the fit even further.

Alaska↗

USGS2012

Evaluating fault rupture hazard for strike-slip earthquakes

We present fault displacement data, regressions, and a methodology to calculate in both a probabilistic and deterministic framework the fault rupture hazard for strike-slip faults. To assess this hazard we consider: (1) the size of the earthquake and probability that it will rupture to the surface, (2) the rate of all potential earthquakes on the fault (3) the distance of the site along and from the mapped fault, (4) the complexity of the fault and quality of the fault mapping, (5) the size of the structure that will be placed at the site, and (6) the potential and size of displacements along or near the fault. Probabilistic fault rupture hazard analysis should be an important consideration in design of structures or lifelines that are located within about 50m of well-mapped active faults.

Conference Paper↗

USGS2009

Shallow seismic structure of Kunlun fault zone in northern Tibetan Plateau, China: Implications for the 2001 M s8.1 Kunlun earthquake

The shallow seismic velocity structure of the Kunlun fault zone (KLFZ) was jointly deduced from seismic refraction profiling and the records of trapped waves that were excited by five explosions. The data were collected after the 2001 Kunlun M s8.1 earthquake in the northern Tibetan Plateau. Seismic phases for the in-line record sections (26 records up to a distance of 15 km) along the fault zone were analysed, and 1-D P - and S -wave velocity models of shallow crust within the fault zone were determined by using the seismic refraction method. Sixteen seismic stations were deployed along the off-line profile perpendicular to the fault zone. Fault-zone trapped waves appear clearly on the record sections, which were simulated with a 3-D finite difference algorithm. Quantitative analysis of the correlation coefficients of the synthetic and observed trapped waveforms indicates that the Kunlun fault-zone width is 300 m, and S -wave quality factor Q within the fault zone is 15. Significantly, S -wave velocities within the fault zone are reduced by 30–45 per cent from surrounding rocks to a depth of at least 1–2 km, while P -wave velocities are reduced by 7–20 per cent. A fault-zone with such P - and S -low velocities is an indication of high fluid pressure because Vs is affected more than Vp . The low-velocity and low- Q zone in the KLFZ model is the effect of multiple ruptures along the fault trace of the 2001 M s8.1 Kunlun earthquake.

Tibetan Plateau↗

USGS2006

Surface fault slip associated with the 2004 Parkfield, California, earthquake

Surface fracturing occurred along the San Andreas fault, the subparallel Southwest Fracture Zone, and six secondary faults in association with the 28 September 2004 (M 6.0) Parkfield earthquake. Fractures formed discontinuous breaks along a 32-km-long stretch of the San Andreas fault. Sense of slip was right lateral; only locally was there a minor (1-11 mm) vertical component of slip. Right-lateral slip in the first few weeks after the event, early in its afterslip period, ranged from 1 to 44 mm. Our observations in the weeks following the earthquake indicated that the highest slip values are in the Middle Mountain area, northwest of the mainshock epicenter (creepmeter measurements indicate a similar distribution of slip). Surface slip along the San Andreas fault developed soon after the mainshock; field checks in the area near Parkfield and about 5 km to the southeast indicated that surface slip developed more than 1 hr but generally less than 1 day after the event. Slip along the Southwest Fracture Zone developed coseismically and extended about 8 km. Sense of slip was right lateral; locally there was a minor to moderate (1-29 mm) vertical component of slip. Right-lateral slip ranged from 1 to 41 mm. Surface slip along secondary faults was right lateral; the right-lateral component of slip ranged from 3 to 5 mm. Surface slip in the 1966 and 2004 events occurred along both the San Andreas fault and the Southwest Fracture Zone. In 1966 the length of ground breakage along the San Andreas fault extended 5 km longer than that mapped in 2004. In contrast, the length of ground breakage along the Southwest Fracture Zone was the same in both events, yet the surface fractures were more continuous in 2004. Surface slip on secondary faults in 2004 indicated previously unmapped structural connections between the San Andreas fault and the Southwest Fracture Zone, further revealing aspects of the structural setting and fault interactions in the Parkfield area.

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America↗

USGS1996

Implications of the Northridge earthquake for strong ground motions from thrust faults

The peak accelerations recorded on alluvial sites during the Northridge earthquake were about 50% larger than the median value predicted by current empirical attenuation relations at distances less than about 30 km. This raises the question of whether the ground motions from the Northridge earthquake are anomalous for thrust events or are representative of ground motions expected in future thrust earthquakes. Since the empirical data base contains few strong-motion records close to large-thrust earthquakes, it is difficult to assess whether the Northridge ground motions are anomalous based on recorded data alone. For this reason, we have used a broadband strong-motion simulation procedure to help assess whether the ground motions were anomalous. The simulation procedure has been validated against a large body of strong-motion data from California earthquakes, and so we expect it to produce accurate estimates of ground motions for any given rupture scenario, including blind-thrust events for which no good precedent existed in the strong-motion data base until the occurrence of the Northridge earthquake. The ground motions from the Northridge earthquake and our simulations of these ground motions have a similar pattern of departure from empirical attenuation relations for thrust earthquakes: the peak accelerations are at about the 84th percentile level for distances within 20 to 30 km and follow the median level for larger distances. This same pattern of departure from empirical attenuation relations was obtained in our simulations of the peak accelerations of an Elysian Park blind-thrust event prior to the occurrence of the Northridge earthquake. Since we are able to model this pattern with broadband simulations, and had done so before the Northridge earthquake occurred, this suggests that the Northridge strong-motion records are not anomalous and are representative of ground motions close to thrust faults. Accordingly, it seems appropriate to include these recordings in strong-motion data sets that are used to develop empirical ground-motion attenuation relations for thrust faults and to use this augmented data set as the basis for evaluating the need for modifications in design coefficients in the seismic provisions of building codes.

California↗

USGS2017

Tidal triggering of earthquakes suggests poroelastic behavior on the San Andreas Fault

Tidal triggering of earthquakes is hypothesized to provide quantitative information regarding the fault's stress state, poroelastic properties, and may be significant for our understanding of seismic hazard. To date, studies of regional or global earthquake catalogs have had only modest successes in identifying tidal triggering. We posit that the smallest events that may provide additional evidence of triggering go unidentified and thus we developed a technique to improve the identification of very small magnitude events. We identify events applying a method known as inter-station seismic coherence where we prioritize detection and discrimination over characterization. Here we show tidal triggering of earthquakes on the San Andreas Fault. We find the complex interaction of semi-diurnal and fortnightly tidal periods exposes both stress threshold and critical state behavior. Our findings reveal earthquake nucleation processes and pore pressure conditions – properties of faults that are difficult to measure, yet extremely important for characterizing earthquake physics and seismic hazards.

California↗

USGS2021

Pore pressure threshold and fault slip potential for induced earthquakes in the Dallas-Fort Worth area of north central Texas

Earthquakes were induced in the Fort Worth Basin from 2008 through 2020 by increase in pore pressure from injection of oilfield wastewater (SWD). In this region and elsewhere, a missing link in understanding the mechanics of causation has been a lack of comprehensive models of pore pressure evolution (ΔPp) from SWD. We integrate detailed earthquake catalogs, ΔPp, and probabilistic fault slip potential (FSP) and find that faults near large-scale SWD operations became unstable early, when ΔPp reached ∼0.31 MPa and FSP reached 0.24. Faults farther from SWD became unstable later, when FSP reached 0.17 and at much smaller ΔPp. Earthquake sequences reactivated with mean ΔPp of ∼0.05 MPa. The response of faults shows strong variability, with many remaining stable at higher ΔPp and few that became seismogenic at smaller changes. As ΔPp spread regionally, an ever-increasing number of faults were impacted and the most sensitive became unstable.

Texas↗

USGS2025

Structural controls on splay fault rupture dynamics during Cascadia megathrust earthquakes

Great subduction earthquakes ( M w ≥ 8.0) can generate devastating tsunamis by rapidly displacing the seafloor and overlying water column. These potentially tsunamigenic seafloor offsets result from coseismic fault slip and deformation beneath or within the accretionary wedge. The mechanics of these shallow rupture phenomena and their dependence on subduction zone properties remain unresolved, partly due to the sparsity of offshore observations of shallow megathrust earthquake deformation. Here, we analyze how offshore structure influences shallow rupture mechanics and slip partitioning using 3D dynamic earthquake simulations of the Cascadia subduction zone (CSZ) megathrust with and without variably dipping seaward- or landward-vergent splay faults in the wedge that sole into the megathrust. Resulting tradeoffs between splay and megathrust slip reveal structural controls on rupture partitioning, with greater splay slip leading to less shallow megathrust slip updip. Gently dipping and seaward-vergent splays host more slip than those with steeper, landward-vergent splays. To isolate the underlying mechanisms, we compare models with Andersonian and plunging principal stresses. Results suggest distinct static and dynamic processes control the dip- and vergence-dependence of splay rupture: static (mis)alignment relative to far-field tectonic loading favors slip on more optimally oriented, shallowly dipping splay faults. In contrast, dynamic stress interactions of an updip-propagating megathrust rupture front with the free surface and potential branch faults favor forward branching onto seaward-vergent splays and inhibit backward branching onto landward-vergent splays. Resulting seafloor displacements suggest splay fault structure may influence coseismic tsunami source processes, highlighting the importance of dynamically viable rupture scenarios in subduction hazard assessments.

Cascadia subduction zone↗

USGS2026

Cajon Pass and the southern San Andreas Fault System: Earthquake cycle stress accumulation and present-day loading

With over a century since the last major rupture affecting the wider Los Angeles region, tectonic stress has steadily built along the southern San Andreas and San Jacinto fault systems, raising concerns of an imminent large earthquake. Cajon Pass, located at the junction of these faults, represents a critical site for potential through-going ruptures in Southern California. We constructed new 4D earthquake cycle simulations using a 1000-year paleoseismic rupture history of the San Andreas Fault System (SAFS) to assess spatial and temporal variations in stress. A semi-analytic Fourier transform model was used to compute stress from 3D dislocations in an elastic plate overlying a Maxwell viscoelastic half-space, assuming a complete coseismic reset of resolved shear stress on ruptured elements. Results show highest stress accumulation north of Cajon Pass (∼1.8 MPa/100 years) due to greater slip rates, and lower rates south of Cajon Pass (∼1.0–1.5 MPa/100 years). By 2025, Coulomb stress is estimated at 2.8 MPa on the Mojave South (MOS) segment, 1.8 MPa on the North San Bernardino (NSB1) segment and 3.6 MPa on the San Jacinto Bernardino (SJB) segment. Segments accumulate stresses with characteristic ranges of pre-event stress interpreted as failure thresholds: 1.2–2.7 MPa for MOS, 0.4–1.6 MPa for NSB1, and 1.2–2.9 MPa for SJB. When the stress disparity between segments SJB and MOS narrows, the faults appear to rupture jointly, suggesting that stress levels may control how Cajon Pass acts as an earthquake gate. These results may inform seismic hazard assessments by linking stress evolution to fault interactions.

California↗

USGS2012

Seismicity and geometry of a 110‐km‐long blind thrust fault 1. The 1985 Kettleman Hills, California, earthquake

The August 4, 1985, Kettleman Hills earthquake was the third in a sequence of moderate shocks to occur beneath the northern half of a 110‐km‐long fold chain bounding the eastern California Coast Ranges. The 1982 M W =5.4 New Idria, 1983 M W =6.5 Coalinga, and 1985 M W =6.1 Kettleman Hills events define a southward progression of seismic activity beneath the fold. We use teleseismic waveforms, geodetic modeling, hypocenters relocated in a three‐dimensional velocity model, and subsurface structural data to investigate the Kettleman Hills earthquake. The main shock results from motion on a shallowly dipping thrust fault buried at ∼10 km depth. Aftershocks and coseismic fault slip extend 20 km along the fold axis, nearly the full extent of the Kettleman Hills North Dome anticline. Aftershocks occur primarily several kilometers in front of the fault tip and in the core of the anticline. The main shock and several foreshocks occurred at a 2‐km right step in the Quaternary fold axis, which also corresponds to the southern end of the 1983 Coalinga and northern end of the 1985 Kettleman Hills aftershock zones. From this we infer that the step in the fold is caused by an offset or tear in the underlying fault. The scalar seismic moment is 1.6 × 10 18 N m, consistent with the geodetic deformation, and the duration of rupture is 16 s, 3–4 times greater than for the average earthquake with this scalar moment. The slow rate of moment release provides an explanation for the low level of ground shaking and low local magnitude reported for the event. The peak of the geodetic uplift is located 5 km perpendicular to the Quaternary fold axis. We argue that the fault is propagating northeast into the undeformed San Joaquin Valley sediments and that the overlying fold is growing at about 0.5 mm/yr.

California↗

USGS2023

2019 M7.1 Ridgecrest earthquake slip distribution controlled by fault geometry inherited from Independence dike swarm

Faults often form through reactivation of pre-existing structures, developing geometries and mechanical properties specific to the system’s geologic inheritance. Competition between fault geometry and other factors (e.g., lithology) to control slip at Earth’s surface is an open question that is central to our knowledge of fault processes and seismic hazards. Here we use remote sensing data and field observations to investigate the origin of the 2019 M 7.1 Ridgecrest, California, earthquake rupture geometry and test its impact on the slip distribution observed at Earth’s surface. Common geometries suggest the fault system evolved through reactivation of structures within the surrounding Independence dike swarm (IDS). Mechanical models testing a range of fault geometries and stress fields indicate that the inherited rupture geometry strongly controlled the M 7.1 earthquake slip distribution. These results motivate revisiting the development of other large-magnitude earthquake ruptures (1992 M 7.3 Landers, 1999 M 7.1 Hector Mine) and tectonic provinces within the IDS.

California↗

USGS2020

3D fault architecture controls the dynamism of earthquake swarm

The vibrant evolutionary patterns made by earthquake swarms are incompatible with standard, effectively two-dimensional (2D) models for general fault architecture. We leverage advances in earthquake monitoring with a deep-learning algorithm to image a fault zone hosting a 4-year-long swarm in southern California. We infer that fluids are naturally injected into the fault zone from below and diffuse through strike-parallel channels while triggering earthquakes. A permeability barrier initially limits up-dip swarm migration but ultimately is circumvented. This enables fluid migration within a shallower section of the fault with fundamentally different mechanical properties. Our observations provide high-resolution constraints on the processes by which swarms initiate, grow, and arrest. These findings illustrate how swarm evolution is strongly controlled by 3D variations in fault architecture.

Science↗

USGS2010

Ground-motion modeling of Hayward fault scenario earthquakes, part II: Simulation of long-period and broadband ground motions

We simulate long-period ( T> 1.0–2.0 s) and broadband ( T> 0.1 s) ground motions for 39 scenario earthquakes ( M w 6.7–7.2) involving the Hayward, Calaveras, and Rodgers Creek faults. For rupture on the Hayward fault, we consider the effects of creep on coseismic slip using two different approaches, both of which reduce the ground motions, compared with neglecting the influence of creep. Nevertheless, the scenario earthquakes generate strong shaking throughout the San Francisco Bay area, with about 50% of the urban area experiencing modified Mercalli intensity VII or greater for the magnitude 7.0 scenario events. Long-period simulations of the 2007 M w 4.18 Oakland earthquake and the 2007 M w 5.45 Alum Rock earthquake show that the U.S. Geological Survey’s Bay Area Velocity Model version 08.3.0 permits simulation of the amplitude and duration of shaking throughout the San Francisco Bay area for Hayward fault earthquakes, with the greatest accuracy in the Santa Clara Valley (San Jose area). The ground motions for the suite of scenarios exhibit a strong sensitivity to the rupture length (or magnitude), hypocenter (or rupture directivity), and slip distribution. The ground motions display a much weaker sensitivity to the rise time and rupture speed. Peak velocities, peak accelerations, and spectral accelerations from the synthetic broadband ground motions are, on average, slightly higher than the Next Generation Attenuation (NGA) ground-motion prediction equations. We attribute much of this difference to the seismic velocity structure in the San Francisco Bay area and how the NGA models account for basin amplification; the NGA relations may underpredict amplification in shallow sedimentary basins. The simulations also suggest that the Spudich and Chiou (2008) directivity corrections to the NGA relations could be improved by increasing the areal extent of rupture directivity with period.

California↗

USGS2013

Aftershocks of the 2010 M w 7.2 El Mayor-Cucapah earthquake revealcomplex faulting in the Yuha Desert, California

We detect and precisely locate over 9500 aftershocks that occurred in the Yuha Desert region during a 2 month period following the 4 April 2010 M w 7.2 El Mayor-Cucapah (EMC) earthquake. Events are relocated using a series of absolute and relative relocation procedures that include Hypoinverse, Velest, and hypoDD. Location errors are reduced to ~40 m horizontally and ~120 m vertically.Aftershock locations reveal a complex pattern of faulting with en echelon fault segments trending toward the northwest, approximately parallel to the North American-Pacific plate boundary and en echelon, conjugate features trending to the northeast. The relocated seismicity is highly correlated with published surface mapping of faults that experienced triggered surface slip in response to the EMC main shock. Aftershocks occurred between 2 km and 11 km depths, consistent with previous studies of seismogenic thickness in the region. Three-dimensional analysis reveals individual and intersecting fault planes that are limited in their along-strike length. These fault planes remain distinct structures at depth, indicative of conjugate faulting, and do not appear to coalesce onto a throughgoing fault segment. We observe a complex spatiotemporal migration of aftershocks, with seismicity that jumps between individual fault segments that are active for only a few days to weeks. Aftershock rates are roughly consistent with the expected earthquake production rates of Dieterich (1994). The conjugate pattern of faulting and nonuniform aftershock migration patterns suggest that strain in the Yuha Desert is being accommodated in a complex manner.

California↗

USGS1999

On relating apparent stress to the stress causing earthquake fault slip

Apparent stress τ a is defined as , where is the average shear stress loading the fault plane to cause slip and η is the seismic efficiency, defined as E a / W , where E a is the energy radiated seismically and W is the total energy released by the earthquake. The results of a recent study in which apparent stresses of mining-induced earthquakes were compared to those measured for laboratory stick-slip friction events led to the hypothesis that . This hypothesis is tested here against a substantially augmented data set of earthquakes for which can be estimated, mostly from in situ stress measurements, for comparison with τ a . The expanded data set, which includes earthquakes artificially triggered at a depth of 9 km in the German Kontinentales Tiefbohrprogramm der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (KTB) borehole and natural tectonic earthquakes, covers a broad range of hypocentral depths, rock types, pore pressures, and tectonic settings. Nonetheless, over ∼14 orders of magnitude in seismic moment, apparent stresses exhibit distinct upper bounds defined by a maximum seismic efficiency of ∼0.06, consistent with the hypothesis proposed before. This behavior of τ a and η can be expressed in terms of two parameters measured for stick-slip friction events in the laboratory: the ratio of the static to the dynamic coefficient of friction and the fault slip overshoot. Typical values for these two parameters yield seismic efficiencies of ∼0.06. In contrast to efficiencies for laboratory events for which η is always near 0.06, those for earthquakes tend to be less than this bounding value because E a for earthquakes is usually underestimated due to factors such as band-limited recording. Thus upper bounds on appear to be controlled by just a few fundamental aspects of frictional stick-slip behavior that are common to shallow earthquakes everywhere. Estimates of from measurements of τ a for suites of earthquakes, using , are found to be comparable in magnitude to estimates of shear stress on the basis of extrapolating in situ stress data to seismogenic depths.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗

USGS2024

Earthquake relocations delineate discrete a fault network and deformation corridor throughout Southeast Alaska and Southwest Yukon

Deformation in southeastern Alaska and southwest Yukon is governed by the subduction and translation of the Pacific-Yakutat plates relative to the North American plate in the St. Elias region. Despite notable historical seismicity and major regional faults, studies of the region between the Fairweather and Denali faults are complicated by glacial coverage and the remote setting. In the last decade, significant improvements have been made to the density of regional broadband seismometer networks. We relocate more than 5,000 earthquakes between 2010 and 2021 in the region of southeastern Alaska and southwestern Yukon utilizing these improved seismic networks. With reductions in catalog uncertainty, particularly in depth, we quantify the thickness of the seismogenic layer in the crust throughout the region and locate seismicity on a shallow network of upper-crustal faults. Relocated earthquakes, combined with an updated focal-mechanism catalog, permit estimating and classifying motion of active faults. This includes mapping the Totschunda-Fairweather “Connector” fault, which plays an important role in explaining regional deformation, and identifying new faults like the Kathleen Lake fault. We draw similarities between our seismic observations and simplified conceptual models of regional tectonics, which describe a dominant transpressional regime and localized slip partitioning. Our results support a hypothesis where current deformation is taking place on a well-defined and evolved network of shallow faults in the corridor between the Totschunda-Fairweather “Connector” and Denali faults.

Alaska, Yukon↗

USGS1997

Episodic nature of earthquake activity in stable continental regions revealed by palaeoseismicity studies of Australian and North American Quaternary faults

Palaeoseismic investigations of recent faulting in stable continental regions of Australia, North America and India show that these faults typically have a long-term behaviour characterised by episodes of activity separated by quiescent intervals of at least 10 000 and commonly 100 000 years or more. Long recurrence intervals such as these are well documented by detailed studies of the faults that ruptured during the 1986 Marryat Creek, South Australia and 1988 Tennant Creek, Northern Territory earthquakes. Thus, neotectonic features associated with stable continental region faults such as scarps and grabens commonly have subtle geomorphic expression and may be poorly preserved. Many potentially hazardous faults in stable continental regions are aseismic, which is one reason why the inventory of these faults is incomplete. Although they may be currently aseismic, faults in stable continental regions that are favourably oriented for movement in the current stress field could produce damaging earthquakes, often in unexpected places. Comprehensive palaeoseismic investigations of modern and prehistoric faulting events in stable continental regions are needed to understand the long-term behaviour of these faults, and thereby, improve seismic-hazard assessments.

Australian Journal of Earth Sciences↗