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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
USGS2017

Lyme disease ecology in a changing world: Consensus, uncertainty and critical gaps for improving control

Lyme disease is the most common tick-borne disease in temperate regions of North America, Europe and Asia, and the number of reported cases has increased in many regions as landscapes have been altered. Although there has been extensive work on the ecology and epidemiology of this disease in both Europe and North America, substantial uncertainty exists about fundamental aspects that determine spatial and temporal variation in both disease risk and human incidence, which hamper effective and efficient prevention and control. Here we describe areas of consensus that can be built on, identify areas of uncertainty and outline research needed to fill these gaps to facilitate predictive models of disease risk and the development of novel disease control strategies. Key areas of uncertainty include: (i) the precise influence of deer abundance on tick abundance, (ii) how tick populations are regulated, (iii) assembly of host communities and tick-feeding patterns across different habitats, (iv) reservoir competence of host species, and (v) pathogenicity for humans of different genotypes of Borrelia burgdorferi . Filling these knowledge gaps will improve Lyme disease prevention and control and provide general insights into the drivers and dynamics of this emblematic multi-host–vector-borne zoonotic disease.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B:↗
USGS2025

A review of the effects of climate change on visitor use in US public lands and waters

Climate change is affecting recreational visitor use in U.S. public lands and waters, causing changes to visitation levels, timing of trips, activity participation, and visitor safety. This report reviews the literature on how climate change is influencing visitor use in the United States and how visitor use may be affected in the future. Our goal is to provide the current state of the literature for managers of public lands and waters and provide foundational information for the development of a climate change vulnerability assessment methodology for visitor use within the National Park Service (that may be applicable to other federal lands and waters). Specifically, we investigate how seven different climate change factors may affect visitor use on public lands and waters. These factors consist of increasing temperatures; flooding, drought, and increased variability of precipitation; decreasing snowpack and earlier spring runoff; wildfires, smoke, and air quality; coastal hazards: hurricanes and sea level rise; harmful algal blooms (HABs); and zoonotic and vector-borne disease. The current research indicates that these factors are already affecting visitors to public lands and waters and continued effects in the future are likely as the climate warms. Additionally, we summarize existing research on how visitors to U.S. public lands and waters are adapting to climate change. Throughout the review, we note where there are substantial gaps in the literature and more research would help managers respond to the effects of climate change on visitor use.

Science Report↗
USGS2010

Disease limits populations: plague and black-tailed prairie dogs

Plague is an exotic vector-borne disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis that causes mortality rates approaching 100% in black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus). We mapped the perimeter of the active portions of black-tailed prairie dog colonies annually between 1999 and 2005 at four prairie dog colony complexes in areas with a history of plague, as well as at two complexes that were located outside the distribution of plague at the time of mapping and had therefore never been affected by the disease. We hypothesized that the presence of plague would significantly reduce overall black-tailed prairie dog colony area, reduce the sizes of colonies on these landscapes, and increase nearest-neighbor distances between colonies. Within the region historically affected by plague, individual colonies were smaller, nearest-neighbor distances were greater, and the proportion of potential habitat occupied by active prairie dog colonies was smaller than at plague-free sites. Populations that endured plague were composed of fewer large colonies (>100 ha) than populations that were historically plague free. We suggest that these differences among sites in colony size and isolation may slow recolonization after extirpation. At the same time, greater intercolony distances may also reduce intercolony transmission of pathogens. Reduced transmission among smaller and more distant colonies may ultimately enhance long-term prairie dog population persistence in areas where plague is present.

Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases↗
USGS2012

Resistance to plague among black-tailed prairie dog populations

In some rodent species frequently exposed to plague outbreaks caused by Yersinia pestis , resistance to the disease has evolved as a population trait. As a first step in determining if plague resistance has developed in black-tailed prairie dogs ( Cynomys ludovicianus ), animals captured from colonies in a plague-free region (South Dakota) and two plague-endemic regions (Colorado and Texas) were challenged with Y. pestis at one of three doses (2.5, 250, or 2500 mouse LD50s). South Dakota prairie dogs were far more susceptible to plague than Colorado and Texas prairie dogs ( p <0.001), with a mortality rate of nearly 100% over all doses. Colorado and Texas prairie dogs were quite similar in their response, with overall survival rates of 50% and 60%, respectively. Prairie dogs from these states were heterogenous in their response, with some animals dying at the lowest dose (37% and 20%, respectively) and some surviving even at the highest dose (29% and 40%, respectively). Microsatellite analysis revealed that all three groups were distinct genetically, but further studies are needed to establish a genetic basis for the observed differences in plague resistance.

Colorado, South Dakota, Texas↗
USGS2019

Evaluation of five pulicides to suppress fleas on black-tailed prairie dogs: Encouraging long-term results with systemic 0.005% fipronil

Plague, a flea-borne disease, hampers efforts to restore populations of black-footed ferrets ( Mustela nigripes ), which occupy colonies of prairie dogs ( Cynomys spp.) in North America. Plague is managed by infusing prairie dog burrows with DeltaDust ® 0.05% deltamethrin, a pulicide that kills fleas. Experiments are needed to identify pulicides that can be used in rotation with DeltaDust for integrated plague management. In South Dakota, USA, we tested the efficacy of four pulicide dusts when applied at a rate of 8 g per burrow on colonies of black-tailed prairie dogs ( Cynomys ludovicianus ): Sevin ® 5% carbaryl; Dusta-cide ® 6% malathion; Alpine ® 0.25% dinotefuran with 95% diatomaceous earth; and Tri-Die ® 1% pyrethrum with 40% amorphous silica and 10% piperonyl butoxide. We also tested systemic 0.005% fipronil, which was distributed as ½ cup of laced grain per burrow. We sampled prairie dogs on 3294 occasions and detected 10,041 fleas. Sevin and Dusta-cide suppressed fleas but only for 1 month. Neither Alpine nor Tri-Die had any noticeable, consistent effect on fleas. Fipronil suppressed fleas by 97–100% for 3 months. The residual effect of fipronil persisted for ∼12 months. Efficacy of fipronil seems comparable with DeltaDust, which exhibited a residual effect for ∼10 months in prior studies. Continued research is needed to optimize fipronil treatments for plague management on prairie dog colonies.

South Dakota↗
USGS2020

Ecology and management of plague in diverse communities of rodents and fleas

Plague originated in Asia as a flea-borne zoonosis of mammalian hosts. Today, the disease is distributed nearly worldwide. In western United States of America, plague is maintained, transmitted, and amplified in diverse communities of rodents and fleas. We examined flea diversity on three species of prairie dogs ( Cynomys spp., PDs) and six species of sympatric small rodents in Montana and Utah, United States of America. Among 2896 fleas, 19 species were identified; 13 were found on PDs and 9 were found on small rodents. In Montana, three flea species were found on PDs; the three species parasitize PDs and mice. In Utah, 12 flea species were found on PDs; the 12 species parasitize PDs, mice, voles, chipmunks, ground squirrels, rock squirrels, and marmots. Diverse flea communities and their willingness to parasitize many types of hosts, across multiple seasons and habitats, may favor plague maintenance and transmission. Flea parasitism on Peromyscus deer mice varied directly with elevation. Fleas are prone to desiccation, and might prosper at higher, mesic elevations; in addition, Peromyscus nest characteristics may vary with elevation. Effective management of plague is critical. Plague management is probably most effective when encompassing communities of rodents and fleas. Treatment of PD burrows with 0.05% deltamethrin dust, which suppressed fleas on PDs for >365 days, suppressed fleas on small rodents for at least 58 days. At one site, deltamethrin suppressed fleas on small rodents for at least 383 days. By simultaneously suppressing fleas on PDs and small rodents, deltamethrin should promote ecosystem resilience and One Health objectives.

Montana, Utah↗
USGS2019

Plague positive mouse fleas on mice prior to plague outbreaks in black-tailed and white-tailed prairie dogs

Plague is a lethal zoonotic disease associated with rodents worldwide. In the western United States, plague outbreaks can decimate prairie dog (Cynomys spp.) colonies. However, it is unclear where the causative agent, Yersinia pestis, of this flea-borne disease is maintained between outbreaks, and what triggers plague-induced prairie dog die-offs. Less susceptible rodent hosts, such as mice, could serve to maintain the bacterium, transport infectious fleas across a colony, or introduce the pathogen to other colonies, possibly facilitating an outbreak. Here, we assess the potential role of two short-lived rodent species, North American deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) and Northern grasshopper mice (Onychomys leucogaster) in plague dynamics on prairie dog colonies. We live-trapped short-lived rodents and collected their fleas on black-tailed (Cynomys ludovicianus, Montana and South Dakota), white-tailed (Cynomys leucurus, Utah and Wyoming), and Utah prairie dog colonies (Cynomys parvidens, Utah) annually, from 2013 to 2016. Plague outbreaks occurred on colonies of all three species. In all study areas, deer mouse abundance was high the year before plague-induced prairie dog die-offs, but mouse abundance per colony was not predictive of plague die-offs in prairie dogs. We did not detect Y. pestis DNA in mouse fleas during prairie dog die-offs, but in three cases we found it beforehand. On one white-tailed prairie dog colony, we detected Y. pestis positive fleas on one grasshopper mouse and several prairie dogs live-trapped 10 days later, months before visible declines and plague-confirmed mortality of prairie dogs. On one black-tailed prairie dog colony, we detected Y. pestis positive fleas on two deer mice 3 months before evidence of plague was detected in prairie dogs or their fleas and also well before a plague-induced die-off. These observations of plague positive fleas on mice could represent early spillover events of Y. pestis from prairie dogs or an unknown reservoir, or possible movement of infectious fleas by mice.

Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases↗
USGS2010

Consumption of baits containing raccoon pox-based plague vaccines protects black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus)

Baits containing recombinant raccoon poxvirus (RCN) expressing plague antigens (fraction 1 [F1] and a truncated form of the V protein-V307) were offered for voluntary consumption several times over the course of several months to a group of 16 black-tailed prairie dogs ( Cynomys ludovicianus ). For comparison, another group of prairie dogs ( n = 12) was injected subcutaneously (SC) (prime and boost) with 40 μg of F1-V fusion protein absorbed to alum, a vaccine-adjuvant combination demonstrated to elicit immunity to plague in mice and other mammals. Control animals received baits containing RCN without the inserted antigen ( n = 8) or injected diluent ( n = 7), and as there was no difference in their survival rates by Kaplan–Meier analysis, all of them were combined into one group in the final analysis. Mean antibody titers to Yersinia pestis F1 and V antigen increased ( p < 0.05) in the vaccinated groups compared to controls, but titers were significantly higher ( p < 0.0001) in those receiving injections of F1-V fusion protein than in those orally vaccinated with RCN-based vaccine. Interestingly, upon challenge with approximately 70,000 cfu of virulent Y. pestis , oral vaccination resulted in survival rates that were significantly higher ( p = 0.025) than the group vaccinated by injection with F1-V fusion protein and substantially higher ( p < 0.0001) than the control group. These results demonstrate that oral vaccination of prairie dogs using RCN-based plague vaccines provides significant protection against challenge at dosages that simulate simultaneous delivery of the plague bacterium by numerous flea bites.

Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases↗
USGS2012

Cross-seasonal patterns of avian influenza virus in breeding and wintering migratory birds: a flyway perspective

The spread of avian influenza viruses (AIV) in nature is intrinsically linked with the movements of wild birds. Wild birds are the reservoirs for the virus and their migration may facilitate the circulation of AIV between breeding and wintering areas. This cycle of dispersal has become widely accepted; however, there are few AIV studies that present cross-seasonal information. A flyway perspective is critical for understanding how wild birds contribute to the persistence of AIV over large spatial and temporal scales, with implications for how to focus surveillance efforts and identify risks to public health. This study characterized spatio-temporal infection patterns in 10,389 waterfowl at two important locations within the Pacific Flyway--breeding sites in Interior Alaska and wintering sites in California's Central Valley during 2007-2009. Among the dabbling ducks sampled, the northern shoveler (Anas clypeata) had the highest prevalence of AIV at both breeding (32.2%) and wintering (5.2%) locations. This is in contrast to surveillance studies conducted in other flyways that have identified the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and northern pintail (Anas acuta) as hosts with the highest prevalence. A higher diversity of AIV subtypes was apparent at wintering (n=42) compared with breeding sites (n=17), with evidence of mixed infections at both locations. Our study suggests that wintering sites may act as an important mixing bowl for transmission among waterfowl in a flyway, creating opportunities for the reassortment of the virus. Our findings shed light on how the dynamics of AIV infection of wild bird populations can vary between the two ends of a migratory flyway.

Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases↗
USGS2015

Mapping physiological suitability limits for malaria in Africa under climate change

We mapped current and future temperature suitability for malaria transmission in Africa using a published model that incorporates nonlinear physiological responses to temperature of the mosquito vector Anopheles gambiae and the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum . We found that a larger area of Africa currently experiences the ideal temperature for transmission than previously supposed. Under future climate projections, we predicted a modest increase in the overall area suitable for malaria transmission, but a net decrease in the most suitable area. Combined with human population density projections, our maps suggest that areas with temperatures suitable for year-round, highest-risk transmission will shift from coastal West Africa to the Albertine Rift between the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda, whereas areas with seasonal transmission suitability will shift toward sub-Saharan coastal areas. Mapping temperature suitability places important bounds on malaria transmissibility and, along with local level demographic, socioeconomic, and ecological factors, can indicate where resources may be best spent on malaria control.

Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases↗
USGS2021

Epizootic plague in prairie dogs: Correlates and control with deltamethrin

The plague bacterium, Yersinia pestis , is a generalist pathogen of flea (Siphonaptera) vectors and mammalian hosts. In colonies of prairie dogs (PDs, Cynomys spp.), Y. pestis causes occasional epizootics, killing ≥90% of PDs within weeks to several months. We evaluated the effectiveness of deltamethrin, a pyrethroid insecticide, as a tool for preventing plague epizootics among three PD species. Specifically, we studied PD population growth on paired plots treated with deltamethrin for flea control or left untreated as baselines. We also evaluated PD population growth relative to flea abundance and PD density. All epizootics occurred on nontreated plots. Epizootics occurred on plots with very low PD densities as well as high densities. Mean population change, assessed by comparing visual counts of PDs in years before and during epizootics, was +88% for treated plots and −97% for nontreated plots. For comparison, an experimental oral vaccine against plague had an average change in population index or estimate during epizootics of −69% on vaccine plots compared with −83% for associated nontreated (placebo) plots. In our study and on plots not treated with deltamethrin, PD population growth was negatively correlated with flea abundance in the year before the epizootic, lending support to the hypothesis that flea abundance plays a critical role in plague transmission under natural conditions. Generally speaking, deltamethrin is a highly effective tool for plague management on PD colonies. That said, continued study is needed to refine deltamethrin treatments and to develop a more integrated strategy for plague management.

Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases↗
USGS2021

Borreliosis transmission from ticks to humans associated with desert tortoise burrows: Examples of tick-borne relapsing fever in the Mojave Desert

Ticks transmit pathogens and parasitize wildlife in turn causing zoonotic diseases in many ecosystems. Argasid ticks, such as Ornithodoros spp., harbor and transmit Borrelia spp., resulting in tick-borne relapsing fever (TBRF) in people. In the western United States, TBRF is typically associated with the bite of an infected Ornithodoros hermsi tick found in habitats at high elevations (>1500 ft). This report describes the first TBRF cases in people in the Mojave Desert (Clark County, NV). Individuals documented in these case studies were exposed to Ornithodoros ticks during excavation of soil burrows associated with Mojave Desert tortoises ( Gopherus agassizii ), with bacteria from one of the human case's blood sample genetically matching to Borrelia turicatae as determined by quantitative PCR and sequencing. Our findings should serve as a precaution to individuals working with tortoises or animal burrows, or those in contact with Ornithodoros ticks in this region.

California, Nevada↗
USGS2021

Comparison of flea sampling methods and Yersinia pestis detection on prairie dog colonies

Scientists collect fleas (Siphonaptera) to survey for Yersinia pestis , the bacterial agent of plague. When studying fleas parasitizing prairie dogs ( Cynomys spp.), two primary methods are used: (1) combing fleas from live-trapped prairie dogs and (2) swabbing fleas from burrows with cloth swabs attached to metal cables. Ideally, burrow swabbing, the cheaper and easier method, would explain flea burdens on prairie dogs and provide reliable information on plague prevalence. In a linear regression analysis of data from 1-month intervals (June–August 2010–2011) on 13 colonies of black-tailed prairie dogs ( Cynomys ludovicianus , BTPDs) in New Mexico, flea abundance on swabs explained 0–26% of variation in BTPD flea burdens. In an analysis of data (May–August 2016) from six colonies of BTPDs in Montana, flea abundance on swabs explained 2% of variation in BTPD flea burdens. In an analysis of data from a short-term interval (July 23–27, 2019) on four colonies of BTPDs in Montana, flea abundance on swabs explained 0.1% of variation in BTPD flea burdens. In an analysis of data from 1-week intervals (August–October 2000) on four colonies of white-tailed prairie dogs ( Cynomys leucurus , WTPD) in Utah, swabbing data explained 0.1% of variation in WTPD flea burdens. Pools of fleas from two WTPD colonies were tested for Y. pestis by mouse inoculation and isolation; 65% from WTPDs tested positive, whereas 4% from burrows tested positive. Data herein also show that results from burrow swabbing can misrepresent flea species composition and phenology on prairie dogs. Burrow swabbing is useful for some purposes, but limitations should be acknowledged, and accumulated data should be interpreted with caution.

Montana, New Mexico, Utah↗
USGS2021

Oral sylvatic plague vaccine does not adequately protect prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.) for endangered black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) conservation

The plague bacterium Yersinia pestis is lethal to endangered black-footed ferrets ( Mustela nigripes , BFF) and the prairie dogs ( Cynomys spp., PD) on which they depend for habitat and prey. We assessed the effectiveness of an oral sylvatic plague vaccine delivered in baits to black-tailed PD ( Cynomys ludovicianus , BTPD) from 2013 to 2017 on the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge (CMR) in northcentral Montana. We permanently marked BTPD on four paired vaccine ( N = 1,349 individuals) and placebo plots ( N = 926; 7,027 total captures). We analyzed capture–recapture data under a Cormack–Jolly–Seber model to estimate annual apparent survival. Overall, survival averaged 0.05 lower on vaccine plots than on paired placebo plots. Immediately before noticeable die-offs and detecting plague on pairs CMR1 and CMR2, 89% of BTPD sampled on vaccine plots had consumed at least one bait and the immune systems (pleural) of 40% were likely boosted by consuming baits over multiple years. Survival to the following year was 0.16 and 0.05 on the vaccine plots and 0.19 and 0.06 on the placebo plots for pairs CMR1 and CMR2, respectively. These rates were markedly lower than 0.63, the overall average estimate on those same plots during the previous 3 years. PD populations subjected to such large die-offs would not be expected to sustain a BFF population. An overriding limitation to achieving sufficient protection rests with vaccine delivery constraints. Late summer/fall bait distribution results in the highest bait uptake rates. However, the PD birth pulse each spring can double the size of populations in most years, greatly reducing the proportion of vaccinates in populations and diminishing potential herd immunity benefits. In addition to nonvaccinated juveniles and PD that do not consume bait, incomplete vaccine protection and time required for immunity to develop leaves a large majority of PD populations vulnerable to plague for 6–7 months or more each year.

Montana↗
USGS2019

Towards common ground in the biodiversity–disease debate

The disease ecology community has struggled to come to consensus on whether biodiversity reduces or increases infectious disease risk, a question that directly affects policy decisions for biodiversity conservation and public health. Here, we summarize the primary points of contention regarding biodiversity–disease relationships and suggest that vector-borne, generalist wildlife and zoonotic pathogens are the types of parasites most likely to be affected by changes to biodiversity. One synthesis on this topic revealed a positive correlation between biodiversity and human disease burden across countries, but as biodiversity changed over time within these countries, this correlation became weaker and more variable. Another synthesis—a meta-analysis of generally smaller-scale experimental and field studies—revealed a negative correlation between biodiversity and infectious diseases (a dilution effect) in various host taxa. These results raise the question of whether biodiversity–disease relationships are more negative at smaller spatial scales. If so, biodiversity conservation at the appropriate scales might prevent wildlife and zoonotic diseases from increasing in prevalence or becoming problematic (general proactive approaches). Further, protecting natural areas from human incursion should reduce zoonotic disease spillover. By contrast, for some infectious diseases, managing particular species or habitats and targeted biomedical approaches (targeted reactive approaches) might outperform biodiversity conservation as a tool for disease control. Importantly, biodiversity conservation and management need to be considered alongside other disease management options. These suggested guiding principles should provide common ground that can enhance scientific and policy clarity for those interested in simultaneously improving wildlife and human health.

Nature Ecology & Evolution↗
USGS2023

Biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) as putative vectors of zoonotic Onchocerca lupi (Nematoda: Onchocercidae) in northern Arizona and New Mexico, southwestern United States

Onchocerca lupi (Rodonaja, 1967) is an understudied, vector-borne, filarioid nematode that causes ocular onchocercosis in dogs, cats, coyotes, wolves, and is also capable of infecting humans. Onchocercosis in dogs has been reported with increasing incidence worldwide. However, despite the growing number of reports describing canine O. lupi cases as well as zoonotic infections globally, the disease prevalence in endemic areas and vector species of this parasite remains largely unknown. Here, our study aimed to identify the occurrence of O. lupi infected dogs in northern Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah, United States and identify the vector of this nematode. A total of 532 skin samples from randomly selected companion animals with known geographic locations within the Navajo Reservation were collected and molecularly surveyed by PCR for the presence of O. lupi DNA (September 2019–June 2022) using previously published nematode primers (COI) and DNA sequencing. O. lupi DNA was detected in 50 (9.4%) sampled animals throughout the reservation. Using positive animal samples to target geographic locations, pointed hematophagous insect trapping was performed to identify potential O. lupi vectors. Out of 1,922 insects screened, 38 individual insects and 19 insect pools tested positive for the presence of O. lupi, all of which belong to the Diptera family. This increased surveillance of definitive host and biological vector/intermediate host is the first large scale prevalence study of O. lupi in companion animals in an endemic area of the United States, and identified an overall prevalence of 9.4% in companion animals as well as multiple likely biological vector and putative vector species in the southwestern United States. Furthermore, the identification of these putative vectors in close proximity to human populations coupled with multiple, local zoonotic cases highlight the One Health importance of O. lupi .

Arizona, New Mexico↗
USGS2012

Three pathogens in sympatric populations of pumas, bobcats, and domestic cats: Implications for infections disease transmission

Anthropogenic landscape change can lead to increased opportunities for pathogen transmission between domestic and non-domestic animals. Pumas, bobcats, and domestic cats are sympatric in many areas of North America and share many of the same pathogens, some of which are zoonotic. We analyzed bobcat, puma, and feral domestic cat samples collected from targeted geographic areas. We examined exposure to three pathogens that are taxonomically diverse (bacterial, protozoal, viral), that incorporate multiple transmission strategies (vector-borne, environmental exposure/ingestion, and direct contact), and that vary in species-specificity. Bartonella spp., Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV), and Toxoplasma gondii IgG were detected in all three species with mean respective prevalence as follows: puma 16%, 41% and 75%; bobcat 31%, 22% and 43%; domestic cat 45%, 10% and 1%. Bartonella spp. were highly prevalent among domestic cats in Southern California compared to other cohort groups. Feline Immunodeficiency Virus exposure was primarily associated with species and age, and was not influenced by geographic location. Pumas were more likely to be infected with FIV than bobcats, with domestic cats having the lowest infection rate. Toxoplasma gondii s eroprevalence was high in both pumas and bobcats across all sites; in contrast, few domestic cats were seropositive, despite the fact that feral, free ranging domestic cats were targeted in this study. Interestingly, a directly transmitted species-specific disease (FIV) was not associated with geographic location, while exposure to indirectly transmitted diseases – vector-borne for Bartonella spp. and ingestion of oocysts via infected prey or environmental exposure for T. gondii – varied significantly by site. Pathogens transmitted by direct contact may be more dependent upon individual behaviors and intra-specific encounters. Future studies will integrate host density, as well as landscape features, to better understand the mechanisms driving disease exposure and to predict zones of cross-species pathogen transmission among wild and domestic felids.

PLoS ONE↗