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USGS1980

Handbook of acute toxicity of chemicals to fish and aquatic invertebrates : summaries of toxicity tests conducted at Columbia National Fisheries Research Laboratory, 1965-78

Acute toxicity is a major subject of research at Columbia National Fisheries Research Laboratory for evaluating the impact of toxic chemicals on fishery resources. The Laboratory has played a leading role in developing research technology for toxicity testing and data interpretation. In 1965-78, more than 400 chemicals were tested against a variety of invertebrates and fish species representative of both cold- and warm-water climates. The use of acute toxicity tests for assessing the potential hazard of chemical contaminants to aquatic organisms is well documented (Boyd 1957; Henderson et al. 1960; Sanders and Cope 1966; Macek and McAllister 1970). Static acute toxicity tests provide rapid and (within limits) reproducible concentration-response curves for estimating toxic effects of chemicals on aquatic organisms. These tests provide a database for determining relative toxicity of a large number of chemicals to a variety of species and for estimating acute effects of chemical spills on natural aquatic systems; they also assist in determining priority and design of additional toxicity studies. Acute toxicity tests usually provide estimates of the exposure concentration causing 50% mortality (LC50) to test organisms during a specified period of time. For certain invertebrates, the effective concentration is based on immobilization, or some other identifiable endpoint, rather than on lethality. The application of the LC50 has gained acceptance among toxicologists and is generally the most highly rated test for assessing potential adverse effects of chemical contaminants to aquatic life (Brungs and Mount 1978; American Institute for Biological Sciences 1978 a ). The literature contains numerous papers dealing with the acute toxicity of chemicals to freshwater organisms. However, there is a tremendous need for a concise compendium of toxicity data covering a large variety of chemicals and test species. This Handbook is a compilation of a large volume of acute toxicity data from the Columbia Laboratory and its field laboratories. It presents definitive acute toxicity data on 271 chemicals tested against a variety of freshwater invertebrates and fishes. The chemicals represent all major groups of pesticides, as well as numerous industrial chemicals. This compilation should serve as a useful database for the many agencies and organizations dealing with research and management programs concerned with the impact of chemicals on aquatic resources. The Columbia Laboratory has played a major role in developing currently used standard methodology for static acute toxicity testing. The use of standardized methodology greatly reduces variation in results. The data presented here have been carefully scrutinized to eliminate tests that failed to follow acceptable procedures. Handling of test organisms and procedures for static toxicity tests followed those described by Lennon and Walker (1964) and Macek and McAllister (1970), and conform well with those recommended by Brauhn and Schoettger (1975) and the Committee on Methods for Toxicity Tests with Aquatic Organisms (1975). The species of fish and invertebrates that were tested are listed in phylogenetic order in Tables 1 and 2. Fish were obtained from Federal and State hatcheries as either eggs or fry. Original stocks of invertebrates were collected and cultured from wild populations with no known source of contamination; these populations were replenished regularly. The invertebrates were cultured in the Laboratory by methods similar to those described by Sanders and Cope (1966). Test chemicals usually consisted of technical or analytical grade samples of known purity. Formulations of the chemicals were also tested when available. When purity of test chemicals was known, all calculated concentrations were based on percent active ingredients. Stock solutions were prepared immediately before each test, with commercial grade acetone as the carrier solvent. Occasionally, ethanol or dimethyl-formamide was substituted. Solvent concentrations did not exceed 0.5 mL/L in final dilution water. Test water (dilution water) was reconstituted from deionized water of at least 10 6 ohms resistivity by the addition of appropriate reagent grade chemicals (Marking 1969). Water was buffered to maintain a pH of 7.2 to 7.5, an alkalinity of 30 to 35 mg/L, and a hardness of 40 to 50 mg/L as CaCO 3 . Test water was mixed thoroughly and aerated before transfer into test chambers. Fish were acclimated to dilution water by gradually changing the water in acclimated tanks from 100% well water to 100% reconstituted water over a 1- to 3-day period at the desired testing temperature. Invertebrates were acclimated from well water to dilution water over a 4- to 6-h period. Toxicity tests were conducted under static conditions without aeration, and the organisms were not fed during acclimation or testing. Temperature of test solutions was maintained within ± 1°C of that required for a given test. Toxicity tests with fish were conducted in 18.9-liter (5-gal) wide-mouthed jars containing 15 liters of test solution. Fingerling fish weighing 0.2 to 1.5 g were tested at each concentration. Caution was taken not to exceed 0.8 g of test organisms per liter of solution. Duplicate test chambers were used to accommodate larger fish. Test chambers varied in size for invertebrates, depending on the species used; volume of test solution ranged from 0.25 to 4 liters. At least 10 organisms were exposed to each concentration for all definitive tests. At least six concentrations were used per toxicity test. The tests began upon initial exposure to the toxicant and continued for 96 h. Immobilization tests with invertebrates were conducted for only 48 h. The number of dead or affected organisms in each test chamber were recorded and the dead organisms were removed every 24 h; general observations on the condition of test organisms were also recorded at these times. Toxicity data were analyzed by a statistical method described by Litchfield and Wilcoxon (1949) to determine LC50 (theoretical estimate of the concentration lethal to 50% of the test animals) and 95% confidence intervals. This method is recommended by the American Public Health Association (1971) and by Sprague (1969) for determining median lethal concentrations. The procedure is easily modified for computing a single LC50 when replicate tests are performed.

Resource Publication↗

USGS2014

Pesticide Toxicity Index: a tool for assessing potential toxicity of pesticide mixtures to freshwater aquatic organisms

Pesticide mixtures are common in streams with agricultural or urban influence in the watershed. The Pesticide Toxicity Index (PTI) is a screening tool to assess potential aquatic toxicity of complex pesticide mixtures by combining measures of pesticide exposure and acute toxicity in an additive toxic-unit model. The PTI is determined separately for fish, cladocerans, and benthic invertebrates. This study expands the number of pesticides and degradates included in previous editions of the PTI from 124 to 492 pesticides and degradates, and includes two types of PTI for use in different applications, depending on study objectives. The Median-PTI was calculated from median toxicity values for individual pesticides, so is robust to outliers and is appropriate for comparing relative potential toxicity among samples, sites, or pesticides. The Sensitive-PTI uses the 5th percentile of available toxicity values, so is a more sensitive screening-level indicator of potential toxicity. PTI predictions of toxicity in environmental samples were tested using data aggregated from published field studies that measured pesticide concentrations and toxicity to Ceriodaphnia dubia in ambient stream water. C. dubia survival was reduced to ≤ 50% of controls in 44% of samples with Median-PTI values of 0.1–1, and to 0% in 96% of samples with Median-PTI values > 1. The PTI is a relative, but quantitative, indicator of potential toxicity that can be used to evaluate relationships between pesticide exposure and biological condition.

Science of the Total Environment↗

USGS2011

Behavioral, clinical, and pathological characterization of acid metalliferous water toxicity in mallards

From September to November 2000, United States Fish and Wildlife Service biologists investigated incidents involving 221 bird deaths at 3 mine sites located in New Mexico and Arizona. These bird deaths primarily involved passerine and waterfowl species and were assumed to be linked to consumption of acid metalliferous water (AMW). Because all of the carcasses were found in or near pregnant leach solution ponds, tailings ponds, and associated lakes or storm water retention basins, an acute-toxicity study was undertaken using a synthetic AMW (SAMW) formulation based on the contaminant profile of a representative pond believed to be responsible for avian mortalities. An acute oral-toxicity trial was performed with a mixed-sex group of mallards ( Anas platyrhynchos ). After a 24-h pretreatment food and water fast, gorge drinking was evident in both SAMW treatment and control groups, with water consumption rates greatest during the initial drinking periods. Seven of nine treated mallards were killed in extremis within 12 h after the initiation of dose. Total lethal doses of SAMW ranged from 69.8 to 270.1 mL/kg (mean ± SE 127.9 ± 27.1). Lethal doses of SAMW were consumed in as few as 20 to 40 min after first exposure. Clinical signs of SAMW toxicity included increased serum uric acid, aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase, potassium, and P levels. PCV values of SAMW-treated birds were also increased compared with control mallards. Histopathological lesions were observed in the esophagus, proventriculus, ventriculus, and duodenum of SAMW-treated mallards, with the most distinctive being erosion and ulceration of the kaolin of the ventriculus, ventricular hemorrhage and/or congestion, and duodenal hemorrhage. Clinical, pathological, and tissue-residue results from this study are consistent with literature documenting acute metal toxicosis, especially copper (Cu), in avian species and provide useful diagnostic profiles for AMW toxicity or mortality events. Blood and kidney Cu concentrations were 23- and 6-fold greater, respectively, in SAMW mortalities compared with controls, whereas Cu concentrations in liver were not nearly as increased, suggesting that blood and kidney concentrations may be more useful than liver concentrations for diagnosing Cu toxicosis in wild birds. Based on these findings and other reports of AMW toxicity events in wild birds, we conclude that AMW bodies pose a significant hazard to wildlife that come in contact with them.

New Mexico, Arizona↗

USGS1998

Effect of zeolite on toxicity of ammonia in freshwater sediments: Implications for toxicity identification evaluation procedures

Techniques for reducing ammonia toxicity in freshwater sediments were investigated as part of a project to develop toxicity identification and evaluation (TIE) procedures for whole sediments. Although ammonia is a natural constituent of freshwater sediments, pollution can lead to ammonia concentrations that are toxic to benthic invertebrates, and ammonia can also contribute to the toxicity of sediments that contain more persistent contaminants. We investigated the use of amendments of a natural zeolite mineral, clinoptilolite, to reduce concentrations of ammonia in sediment pore water. Zeolites have been widely used for removal of ammonia in water treatment and in aqueous TIE procedures. The addition of granulated zeolite to ammonia-spiked sediments reduced pore-water ammonia concentrations and reduced ammonia toxicity to invertebrates. Amendments of 20% zeolite (v/v) reduced ammonia concentrations in pore water by ???70% in spiked sediments with ammonia concentrations typical of contaminated freshwater sediments. Zeolite amendments reduced toxicity of ammonia-spiked sediments to three taxa of benthic invertebrates (Hyalella azteca, Lumbriculus variegatus, and Chironomus tentans), despite their widely differing sensitivity to ammonia toxicity. In contrast, zeolite amendments did not reduce acute toxicity of sediments containing high concentrations of cadmium or copper or reduce concentrations of these metals in pore waters. These studies suggest that zeolite amendments, used in conjunction with toxicity tests with sensitive taxa such as H. azteca, may be an effective technique for selective reduction of ammonia toxicity in freshwater sediments.

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry↗

USGS1979

Acute oral and percutaneous toxicity of pesticides to mallards: Correlations with mammalian toxicity data

Acute oral (po) and 24-hr percutaneous (perc) LD50 values for 21 common pesticides (19 anticholinesterases, of which 18 were organophosphates, and one was a carbamate; one was an organochlorine central nervous system stimulant; and one was an organonitrogen pneumotoxicant) were determined in mallards ( Anas platyrhynchos ). Three of the pesticides tested were more toxic percutaneously than orally. An index to the percutaneous hazard of a pesticide, the dermal toxicity index (DTI = po LD50/perc LD50 × 100), was also calculated for each pesticide. These toxicity values in mallards were compared with toxicity data for rats from the literature. Significant positive correlations were found between log po and log percutaneous LD50 values in mallards ( r = 0.65, p < 0.01), between log po LD50 values in mallards and in rats ( r = 0.71, p < 0.01), and between log DTI values in mallards and in rats ( r = 0.52, p < 0.05). Percutaneous toxicity values were not significantly correlated between mallards and rats ( r = 0.36, p > 0.10). Variations in percutaneous methodologies are discussed with reference to interspecies variation in toxicity values. It is recommended that a mammalian DTI value approaching 30 be used as a guideline for the initiation of percutaneous toxicity studies in birds, when the po LD50 and/or projected percutaneous LD50 are less than expected field exposure levels.

Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology↗

USGS2011

Sediment pore-water toxicity test results and preliminary toxicity identification of post-landfall pore-water samples collected following the Deepwater Horizon oil release, Gulf of Mexico, 2010

Pore water from coastal beach and marsh sediments from the northern Gulf of Mexico, pre- and post-landfall of the Deepwater Horizon oil release, were collected and evaluated for toxicity with the sea urchin fertilization and embryological development assays. There were 17 pre-landfall samples and 49 post-landfall samples tested using both assays. Toxicity was determined in four pre-landfall sites and in seven post-landfall sites in one or both assays as compared to a known reference sediment pore-water sample collected in Aransas Bay, Texas. Further analysis and testing of five of the post-landfall toxic samples utilizing Toxicity Identification Evaluation techniques indicated that ammonia, and to a lesser extent metals, contributed to most, if not all, of the observed toxicity in four of the five samples. Results of one sample (MS-39) indicated evidence that ammonia, metals, and non-ionic organics were contributing to the observed toxicity.

Gulf of Mexico↗

USGS2013

Chronic toxicity of nickel-spiked freshwater sediments: variation in toxicity among eight invertebrate taxa and eight sediments

This study evaluated the chronic toxicity of Ni-spiked freshwater sediments to benthic invertebrates. A 2-step spiking procedure (spiking and sediment dilution) and a 2-stage equilibration period (10 wk anaerobic and 1 wk aerobic) were used to spike 8 freshwater sediments with wide ranges of acid-volatile sulfide (AVS; 0.94–38 µmol/g) and total organic carbon (TOC; 0.42–10%). Chronic sediment toxicity tests were conducted with 8 invertebrates ( Hyalella azteca, Gammarus pseudolimnaeus , Chironomus riparius, Chironomus dilutus , Hexagenia sp., Lumbriculus variegatus, Tubifex tubifex , and Lampsilis siliquoidea ) in 2 spiked sediments. Nickel toxicity thresholds estimated from species-sensitivity distributions were 97 µg/g and 752 µg/g (total recoverable Ni; dry wt basis) for sediments with low and high concentrations of AVS and TOC, respectively. Sensitive species were tested with 6 additional sediments. The 20% effect concentrations (EC20s) for Hyalella and Gammarus , but not Hexagenia , were consistent with US Environmental Protection Agency benchmarks based on Ni in porewater and in simultaneously extracted metals (SEM) normalized to AVS and TOC. For Hexagenia , sediment EC20s increased at less than an equimolar basis with increased AVS, and toxicity occurred in several sediments with Ni concentrations in SEM less than AVS. The authors hypothesize that circulation of oxygenated water by Hexagenia led to oxidation of AVS in burrows, creating microenvironments with high Ni exposure. Despite these unexpected results, a strong relationship between Hexagenia EC20s and AVS could provide a basis for conservative site-specific sediment quality guidelines for Ni.

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry↗

USGS2018

Evaluation of chronic toxicity of sodium chloride or potassium chloride to a unionid mussel (Lampsilis siliquoidea) in water exposures using standard and refined toxicity testing methods

Freshwater mussels are generally underrepresented in toxicity databases used to derive water quality criteria, especially for long‐term exposures. Multiple tests were conducted to determine the chronic toxicity of sodium chloride (NaCl) or potassium chloride (KCl) to a unionid mussel (fatmucket, Lampsilis siliquoidea ). Initially, a 4‐wk NaCl test and a 4‐wk KCl test were conducted starting with 2‐mo‐old mussels in water exposures with and without a thin layer of sand substrate. A feeding study was conducted later to refine test conditions for longer‐term 12‐wk exposures, and 3 chronic NaCl tests were then conducted following the refined method to assess the influence of test duration (4–12 wk) and age of organisms (starting age ∼1 wk to 2 mo) on mussel sensitivity. Biomass (total dry wt of surviving mussels in a replicate) was generally a more sensitive endpoint compared to survival and growth (length and dry wt). In the 4‐wk NaCl or KCl test started with 2‐mo‐old juveniles, a 20% effect concentration (EC20) based on biomass (264 mg Cl/L from the NaCl test or 8.7 mg K/L from the KCl test) in the exposure with sand was 2‐fold lower than the EC20 in the exposure without sand. The longer‐term 12‐wk NaCl tests started with the 1‐wk‐old and 2‐mo‐old juveniles were successfully completed under refined test conditions based on the feeding study, and younger juveniles were more sensitive to NaCl than older juveniles. The NaCl toxicity did not substantially change with extended exposure periods from 4 to 12 wk, although the 4‐wk EC20s for biomass were slightly greater (up to 37%) than the 12‐wk EC20s in the 2 longer‐term exposures. Including the toxicity data from the present study into existing databases would rank fatmucket the most sensitive species to KCl and the second most sensitive species to NaCl for all freshwater organisms.

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry↗

USGS1999

Removal of organic contaminant toxicity from sediments - Early work toward development of a toxicity identification evaluation (TIE) method

Work was performed to determine the feasibility of selectively detoxifying organic contaminants in sediments. The results of this research will be used to aid in the development of a scheme for whole-sediment toxicity identification evaluations (TIEs). The context in which the method will be used inherently restricts the treatments to which the sediments can be subjected: Sediments cannot be significantly altered physically or chemically and the presence and bioavailabilities of other toxicants must not be changed. The methodological problem is daunting because of the requirement that the detoxification method be relatively fast and convenient together with the stipulation that only innocuous and minimally invasive treatments be used. Some of the experiments described here dealt with degrees of decontamination (i.e., detoxification as predicted from instrumental measurements) of spiked sediments rather than with degrees of detoxification as gauged by toxicity tests (e.g., 48-h toxicity tests with amphipods). Although the larger TIE scheme itself is mostly outside the scope of this paper, theoretical aspects of bioavailability and of the desorption of organic contaminants from sediments are discussed.

Chemosphere↗

USGS2011

Multilevel eEmpirical Bayes modeling for improved estimation of toxicant formulations tosuppress parasitic sea lamprey in the Upper Great Lakes

Estimation of extreme quantal-response statistics, such as the concentration required to kill 99.9% of test subjects (LC99.9), remains a challenge in the presence of multiple covariates and complex study designs. Accurate and precise estimates of the LC99.9 for mixtures of toxicants are critical to ongoing control of a parasitic invasive species, the sea lamprey, in the Laurentian Great Lakes of North America. The toxicity of those chemicals is affected by local and temporal variations in water chemistry, which must be incorporated into the modeling. We develop multilevel empirical Bayes models for data from multiple laboratory studies. Our approach yields more accurate and precise estimation of the LC99.9 compared to alternative models considered. This study demonstrates that properly incorporating hierarchical structure in laboratory data yields better estimates of LC99.9 stream treatment values that are critical to larvae control in the field. In addition, out-of-sample prediction of the results of in situ tests reveals the presence of a latent seasonal effect not manifest in the laboratory studies, suggesting avenues for future study and illustrating the importance of dual consideration of both experimental and observational data.

Illinois;Indiana;Michigan;Minnesota;Wisconsin↗

USGS2002

Pesticide toxicity, chronic toxicity to quail and pheasants of some chlorinated insecticides

Quantitative report of tests. 'Inclusion of 1 p.p.m, of aldrin, dieldrin, or endrin in diets fed growing quail resulted in high mortality rates, but the birds survived on diets containing 100 p.p.m, of DDT or 50 p.p.m. of strobane. Young pheasants survived on diets containing 50 p.p.m, of DDT or strobane, but failed to survive on diets containing 5 p.p.m, of aldrin, dieldrin, or endrin. No ill effects were noted when quail were fed winter diets containing 50 p.p.m, of strobane, or 1 p.p.m, of dieldrin or endrin, but nearly all birds died when fed diets containing 0.5 p.p.m, of aldrin. Mortality rates among pheasants fed 50 p.p.m, and of quail fed 100 p.p.m. of DDT were higher than for birds receiving normal diets, but none of the birds displayed symptoms characteristic of DDT poisoning. Egg production, fertility, and hatchability were relatively unaffected by inclusion of insecticides in diets fed breeding quail, but chicks from these matings showed high mortality rates even when reared on insecticide-free diets. Lowered viability of quail chicks was most pronounced in groups receiving DDT and strobane in the reproduction diets. Hatchability of pheasant eggs and viability of chicks were adversely affected by inclusion of aldrin, dieldrin, or endrin in the reproduction diets.'

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry↗

USGS2014

Evaluation of toxicity to the amphipod, Hyalella azteca , and to the midge, Chironomus dilutus ; and bioaccumulation by the oligochaete, Lumbriculus variegatus , with exposure to PCB-contaminated sediments from Anniston, Alabama

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) requested that as part of the remedial investigation for the Anniston, Alabama Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Site (Anniston PCB Site), that Pharmacia Corporation and Solutia Inc. (P/S) perform long-term reproduction toxicity tests with the amphipod, Hyalella azteca , and the midge, Chironomus dilutus , and bioaccumulation tests with the oligochaete, Lumbriculus variegatus , using sediment samples collected from reference locations and from Operable Unit 4 of the Anniston PCB Site. The sediment toxicity testing and sediment bioaccumulation results will be used by ARCADIS U.S., Inc. (ARCADIS) as part of a weight-of-evidence assessment to evaluate risks and establish sediment remediation goals for contaminants to sediment-dwelling organisms inhabiting the Anniston PCB Site. The goal of this study was to characterize relations between sediment chemistry and sediment toxicity and relations between sediment chemistry and sediment bioaccumulation in samples of sediments collected from the Anniston PCB Site. A total of 32 samples were evaluated from six test sites and one reference site to provide a wide range in concentrations of chemicals of potential concern (COPCs) including PCBs in samples of whole sediment. The goal of this study was not to determine the extent of sediment contamination across the Anniston PCB Site. Hence, the test sites or samples collected from within a test site were not selected to represent the spatial extent of sediment contamination across the Anniston PCB Site. Sediment chemistry, pore-water chemistry, and sediment toxicity data were generated for 26 sediment samples from the Anniston PCB Site. All of the samples were evaluated to determine if they qualified as reference sediment samples. Those samples that met the chemical selection criteria and biological selection criteria were identified as reference samples and used to develop the reference envelope for each toxicity test endpoint. Physical characterization of samples of whole sediment included analyses of grain size, TOC, and nutrients. Organic chemical characterization of samples of whole sediment included PCB homologs and select (13) PCB congeners, parent and alkylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), organochlorine pesticides, and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins; and dibenzofurans. The PCB aroclors analyzed included 1016, 1221, 1232, 1242, 1248, 1254, 1260, 1262 and 1268. Analyses of whole sediment also included total metals, simultaneously extracted metals, and acid volatile sulfide. Chemical characterization of samples of pore water isolated from samples of whole sediment at the start of the sediment toxicity exposures or at the start of the sediment bioaccumulation exposures included metals, major cations, major anions, dissolved organic carbon, and additional water-quality characteristics. Concentrations of metals or PCBs in pore water during the sediment toxicity exposures or during sediment bioaccumulation exposures also were determined using peeper samples (for metals) or solid-phase microextraction (SPME) samplers (for PCBs). The bioavailability and bioaccumulation of PCBs in 14 sediment samples were investigated using SPME passive samplers and the 28-d L. variegatus whole-sediment bioaccumulation exposures In general the accumulation of PCBs consistently was predicted through the use of organic carbon normalization and equilibrium partitioning. In these sediments, PCB homologs were accumulated differently based on bioavailability and potential to accumulate in oligochaetes. As part of this assessment homolog specific biota sediment accumulation factor values were developed that could be applied across the larger site to predict tissue levels of PCBs. The whole-sediment toxicity tests done with H. azteca and C. dilutus met the established ASTM and USEPA test acceptability criteria. The most responsive H. azteca endpoints were day 42 survival normalized young per female and day 28 biomass and that the most responsive C. dilutus endpoints were adult biomass and percent adult emergence. Overall, between the two species, the most responsive endpoint assessed for these two species was H. azteca survival-normalized young per female (67 percent of the samples classified as toxic). Concentration-response models (CRMs) and site-specific sediment toxicity thresholds (TTs) were generated with matching sediment chemistry and sediment toxicity data. Sediment chemistry, pore-water chemistry, and sediment toxicity data were evaluated for as many as 26 sediment samples from the Anniston PCB Site. The reference-envelope approach was used to identify the sediment samples that were toxic to benthic invertebrates. This procedure involved identification of reference sediment samples, normalizing the toxicity data to reflect control responses, developing a reference envelope for each toxicity test endpoint, and designating each sediment sample as toxic or not toxic for each toxicity test endpoint, for each species, and for all species combined. These results demonstrated percent emergence of adult C. dilutus , biomass of adult C. dilutus , and reproduction of H. azteca normalized to percent survival were among the most responsive endpoints that were evaluated. Therefore, these endpoints were selected for CRM development. The site-specific TTs for whole sediment provide a reliable basis for identifying toxic and not toxic sediment samples in the Anniston PCB Site (that is, for correctly classifying the sediment samples used to derive the TTs as toxic or not toxic, for the endpoint used to derive the TTs). Among the 69 TTs for sediment, the TT LRs for total PCB homologs [499 to 1,870 micrograms per kilogram dry weight (μg/kg DW)] and for lead [(9.48 to 10.3 milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg) DW] based on reproduction of H. azteca or based on emergence or biomass of adult C. dilutus , were the most reliable. Such TTs had low rates of false negative errors (that is, only 0 to 11 percent of the samples below the TT were toxic to benthic invertebrates), low rates of false positive errors (only 0 to 6 percent of the samples greater than the TT were not toxic to benthic invertebrates), and high rates of correct classification (that is, 92 to 96 percent). The site-specific TTs for PCBs and other COPCs derived in this study also were compared to empirically based sediment quality guidelines (SQGs), to equilibrium-partitioning based SQGs, and to the results of spiked-sediment toxicity tests. The results of this evaluation indicated that the site-specific sediment TTs for PCBs were comparable to the consensus-based SQGs that were derived for PCBs. In addition, the site-specific sediment TTs for PCBs are well within the range of SQGs derived using the equilibrium partitioning approach. The site-specific sediment TTs for PCBs also are consistent with the results of chronic TTs that have been estimated for benthic invertebrates using the results of spiked-sediment toxicity tests. As the site-specific sediment TTs for PCBs are consistent with empirically based SQGs, equilibrium-partitioning based SQGs, and results of sediment-spiking studies, these site- specific sediment TTs likely represent the concentrations of PCBs that are sufficient to cause toxicity to benthic invertebrates (as opposed to simply being correlated with adverse effects on the survival, weight, or reproduction of benthic invertebrates). Importantly, such site-specific sediment TTs have been demonstrated to accurately classify sediment samples as toxic or not toxic to benthic invertebrates at the Anniston PCB Site. In contrast, the TTs for metals, PAHs, and organochlorine pesticides were generally lower than consensus-based SQGs (that is, probable effect concentrations), and LC 50s (median lethal effect concentrations) generated in spiked-sediment toxicity tests, indicating that these COPCs are likely not the main contributors to the observed toxicity of the site sediments evaluated in this study. The reproduction endpoint for H. azteca provided lower TTs compared to the day 28 biomass endpoint for H. azteca and the emergence or biomass endpoints for adult C. dilutus provided lower TTs compared to the day 13 biomass endpoint for C. dilutus .

Alabama↗

USGS1995

Selected chemical characteristics and acute toxicity of urban stormwater, streamflow, and bed material, Maricopa County, Arizona

The chemistry and toxicity of urban stormwater, streamflow, and bed material in the Phoenix, Arizona, area were characterized to determine if urban stormwater could degrade the quality of streams. Toxic phases of stormwater (oil and grease, suspended solids, dissolved metals, and dissolved organics) were identified to aid water-quality managers minimize the sources of toxicants. Acute aquatic toxicity tests were done using the water flea Ceriodaphnia dubia and fathead minnows (Pimaphales promelas), and acute sediment toxicity tests were done using the amphipod Hyalella azteca. Statistical analyses also were used to determine the effect of urbanization on the quality of water and bed material and to identify toxic constituents. Statistical analyses indicated that urban stormwater could degrade the quality of streamflow with oil and grease, pesticides, dissolved trace metals, and ammonia, and that ammonia, lead, cadmium, and zinc are released by urban activities and accumulate in bed material. Ammonia may be from fertilizers, fecal matter, and other sources. Lead probably is from vehicles that use leaded gasoline. Cadmium and zinc could be from paniculate metal in oil, brake pads, and other sources. Samples of the initial runoff from urban drainage basins appeared to be more toxic than flowweighted composite samples, and stormwater was more harmful to fathead minnows than to Ceriodaphnia dubia. Streamflow samples from the Salt River were not toxic to either species, which indicates that urban stormwater could degrade the quality of the Salt River. The enhanced mortality rate of fathead minnows exposed to urban stormwater from most urban drainage basins indicated that the toxicants were more detrimental to fish than to insects and could be present in stormwater throughout the Phoenix area. The most toxic stormwater samples were collected from the drainage basins with residential and commercial land use, and the toxicity probably was due to surfactants and (or) other constituents leached from asphalt and resealant Results of toxicity identification evaluations indicated that the toxicity of stormwater mostly was due to organic constituents; dissolved zinc and copper also appeared to contribute to stormwater toxicity. Statistical comparisons of chemical data to toxicity data indicated that organophosphate pesticides were not the toxic constituents, and the toxicity generally was due to organic constituents that were not analyzed. The most toxic bed-material samples were collected from a drainage basin with undeveloped land use. In these bed-material samples, mortality rates were significantly higher than in samples from ephemeral channels. Comparisons between the toxicity of bed-material samples from undeveloped and urban drainage basins and between urban drainage basins and ephemeral channels showed no significant difference. In urban drainage basins, bed-material samples collected from areas where stormwater accumulates appeared to be more toxic than samples collected from areas where stormwater does not accumulate. For bed-material samples from the undeveloped drainage basin, mortality rates strongly correlated with recoverable concentrations of zinc and moderately correlated with recoverable concentrations of copper. The high mortality rate probably was due to naturally occurring trace metals. For bed-material samples from urban drainage basins, mortality rates significantly correlated with recoverable concentrations of cadmium and zinc, which resulted from urban activities. The bioavailability of trace metals in bed material appeared to be controlled by the adsorption properties of organic carbon, iron, and manganese. Organochlorine pesticides were detected in most bed-material samples; however, mortality rates were poorly correlated with pesticide concentrations.

Arizona↗

USGS1990

Applicability of ambient toxicity testing to national or regional water-quality assessment

Comprehensive assessment of the quality of natural waters requires a multifaceted approach. Descriptions of existing conditions may be achieved by various kinds of chemical and hydrologic analyses, whereas information about the effects of such conditions on living organisms depends on biological monitoring. Toxicity testing is one type of biological monitoring that can be used to identify possible effects of toxic contaminants. Based on experimentation designed to monitor responses of organisms to environmental stresses, toxicity testing may have diverse purposes in water-quality assessments. These purposes may include identification of areas that warrant further study because of poor water quality or unusual ecological features, verification of other types of monitoring, or assessment of contaminant effects on aquatic communities. Toxicity-test results are most effective when used as a complement to chemical analyses, hydrologic measurements, and other biological monitoring. However, all toxicity-testing procedures have certain limitations that must be considered in developing the methodology and applications of toxicity testing in any large-scale water-quality-assessment program. A wide variety of toxicity-test methods have been developed to fulfill the needs of diverse applications. The methods differ primarily in the selections made relative to four characteristics: (1) test species, (2) endpoint (acute or chronic), (3) test-enclosure type, and (4) test substance (toxicant) that functions as the environmental stress. Toxicity-test approaches vary in their capacity to meet the needs of large-scale assessments of existing water quality. Ambient testing, whereby the test organism is exposed to naturally occurring substances that contain toxicant mixtures in an organic or inorganic matrix, is more likely to meet these needs than are procedures that call for exposure of the test organisms to known concentrations of a single toxicant. However, meaningful interpretation of ambient test results depends on the existence of accompanying chemical analysis of the ambient media. The ambient test substance may be water or sediments. Sediment tests have had limited application, but they are useful because most toxicants tend to accumulate in sediments and many test species either inhabit the sediments or are in frequent contact with them. Biochemical testing methods, which have been developing rapidly in recent years, are likely to be among the most useful procedures for large-scale water-quality assessments. They are relatively rapid and simple, and more. importantly, they focus on biochemical changes that are the initial responses of virtually all organisms to environmental stimuli. Most species are sensitive to relatively few toxicants, and their sensitivities vary as conditions change. Therefore, each test method has particular uses and limitations, and no single test has universal applicability. One of the most informative approaches to toxicity testing is to combine biochemical tests with other test methods in a 'battery of tests' that is diversified enough to characterize different types of toxicants and different trophic levels. However, such an approach can be costly, and if not carefully designed, it may not yield enough additional information to warrant the additional cost. The application of toxicity tests to large-scale water-quality assessments is hampered by a number of difficulties. Toxicity tests often are not sensitive enough to enable detection of most contaminant problems in the natural environment. Furthermore, because sensitivities among different species and test conditions can be highly variable, conclusions about the toxicant problems of an ecosystem are strongly dependent on the test procedure used. In addition, the experimental systems used in toxicity tests cannot replicate the complexity or variability of natural conditions, and positive test results cannot identify the source or nature of

Circular↗

USGS2012

Bioaccumulation and toxicity of selenium during a life-cycle exposure with desert pupfish (Cyprinodon macularius)

Populations of desert pupfish ( Cyprinodon macularius ; pupfish), a federally-listed endangered species, inhabit irrigation drains in the Imperial Valley agricultural area of southern California. These drains have varying degrees of selenium (Se) contamination of water, sediment, and aquatic biota. Published Se toxicity studies suggest that these levels of Se contamination may pose risk of chronic toxicity to Se-sensitive fish, but until recently there have been no studies of the chronic toxicity of Se to desert pupfish. A life-cycle Se exposure with pupfish was conducted to estimate dietary and tissue thresholds for toxic effects of Se on all life stages. The dietary exposure was based on live oligochaete worms ( Lumbriculus variegatus ) dosed with Se by a laboratory food chain based on selenized yeast. Oligochaetes readily accumulated Se from mixtures of selenized and control yeasts. The protocol for dosing oligochaetes for pupfish feeding studies included long-term (at least 28 days) feeding of a low-ration of yeast mixtures to large batches of oligochaetes. Oligochaetes were dosed at five Se levels in a 50-percent dilution series. Pupfish were simultaneously fed Se-dosed oligochaetes and exposed to a series of Se concentrations in water (consisting of 85 percent selenate and 15 percent selenite) to produce exposures that were consistent with Se concentrations and speciation in pupfish habitats. The nutritional characteristics of oligochaete diets were consistent across the range of oligochaete Se concentrations tested. The life-cycle exposure started with laboratory-cultured juvenile pupfish that were exposed to Se through sexual maturation and reproduction (150 days; F0 exposure). The Se exposure continued with eggs, larvae, and juveniles produced by Se-exposed parents (79 days; F1 exposure). Selenium exposure (water and diets), Se bioaccumulation (whole-body and eggs), and toxicity endpoints (juvenile and adult survival and growth; egg production and hatching success, larval survival and deformities) were documented throughout the life-cycle study. Selenium concentrations in water (as much as 52 micrograms per liter [μg/L]) and diets (as much as 53 micrograms per gram [μg/g], on a dry weight basis) bracketed concentrations reported in pupfish habitats. Juvenile F0 pupfish rapidly accumulated Se and bioaccumulation models indicated that pupfish had reached more than 97 percent of maximum whole-body Se concentrations by the time they reached reproductive maturity. Adult pupfish accumulated whole-body Se concentrations that averaged about 40 percent of those in the oligochaete diets. Selenium concentrations in eggs and F1 juveniles were similar to or slightly greater than Se concentrations in F0 adults. Juvenile F0 pupfish contained selenomethionine fractions (62–71 percent of whole-body Se) greater than the average reported for wild pupfish from the Imperial Valley (53 percent). Selenium exposure had minimal effects on survival or growth of juvenile and adult pupfish. There was evidence of toxic effects on pupfish in the highest Se treatment (Se–5), including reduced growth of F0 and F1 juvenile pupfish (17–21 percent less than controls) on some sampling dates. These growth reductions did not persist to subsequent sampling dates, but reduced growth of F1 pupfish in the Se–5 treatment was associated with reduced survival (12 percent less than controls). Egg production was greatest in the controls and decreased with increasing Se exposure, reaching a minimum (51 percent less than controls) in the Se–4 treatment, but egg production was reduced by only 24 percent in the Se–5 treatment, a lesser reduction than in other Se treatments except Se–1. There was no statistically significant overall effect of Se treatment on mean pupfish egg production, reflecting large variation among replicates and among sampling dates. However, comparisons of daily mean egg production for 23 sampling dates indicated that egg production in each of 5 Se treatments was significantly less than controls on multiple (3–7) sampling dates, but no mean for any Se treatment was significantly greater than controls on any date. Significant reductions in daily egg production occurred mainly during the middle of the study and egg production increased in several Se treatments during the final 2 weeks of the study. These results suggest that pupfish egg production, although a highly variable endpoint, was adversely affected by elevated Se exposure. Neither egg hatching success nor survival of F1 larvae indicated clear evidence of Se toxicity. Egg hatching success did not differ significantly among treatments, with means ranging from 84–91 percent. The frequency of morphological deformities (primarily spinal deformities) was greater in larvae 10 days post-fertilization (dpf) from a preliminary reproduction study than in older larvae (14 dpf) from the main reproduction study. The frequency of larval deformities was generally greater in Se treatments than controls, but mean frequencies did not differ significantly among treatments. Survival of F1 larvae to 21 dpf was not reduced significantly by parental Se exposure, but the Se–5 treatment had the lowest larval survival (84 percent), and lowest combined egg hatching and larval survival (76 percent). Results of the Se treatments indicate that pupfish were insensitive to Se toxicity through most of their life cycle. Consistent toxic effects on survival and growth of juvenile and adult pupfish (defined as at least 10 percent reduction compared to controls) occurred only in treatment Se–5, which had a mean dietary Se concentration of 52 μg/g and a mean pupfish whole-body Se concentration of 27 μg/g. These apparent toxicity thresholds for growth and survival rank among the least sensitive chronic Se toxicity values reported for nonreproductive endpoints in freshwater fish. Comparisons of these thresholds to surveys of Se concentrations in the Imperial Valley suggest that risks of Se toxicity are low in pupfish habitats. The dietary threshold was about twice as high as the greatest mean Se concentrations reported in midge larvae from seven sites in the Imperial Valley. Whole-body thresholds were greater than mean whole-body Se concentrations reported for field-collected pupfish from three sites and for the sailfin molly (Poecilia latipinna), a potential bioaccumulation surrogate for pupfish, from seven sites. Reduced egg production, although highly variable, was the most sensitive response of pupfish to Se exposure. Toxic effects on egg production (reductions of 24–51 percent relative to controls) occurred in the four highest Se treatments, corresponding to reproductive toxicity thresholds of 7.3 μg/g for Se in diet, 3.4 μg/g in pupfish (whole body), and 4.4 μg/g in pupfish eggs. These thresholds are substantially lower than published Se toxicity values for reproductive effects in other freshwater fish (for example, 17–24 μg/g in eggs). Reduced egg production has not been reported as a sensitive endpoint in Se toxicity studies, although abnormal ovarian development has been reported in Se-exposed fish, and reduced egg production has been reported as a sensitive response of other Cyprinodon pupfish to other environmental stressors. Selenium concentrations in tissues of pupfish, mollies, and diet items from Imperial Valley sites frequently exceeded concentrations associated with reduced pupfish egg production in the laboratory study. Reduced egg production may limit the ability of pupfish populations to persist and recover in Se-contaminated habitats in the Imperial Valley and elsewhere in their limited range. However, these apparent risks of Se toxicity are not supported by recent surveys of desert pupfish populations in the Imperial Valley. These surveys indicated that desert pupfish made up a small, but variable, component of fish communities in Imperial Valley habitats, including sites with increased levels of Se exposure, and that pupfish distribution and population density indicated no clear relationships with Se concentrations in diets or fish tissues. Additional studies could determine the role of egg production in the maintenance and recovery of desert pupfish populations in Se-contaminated habitats.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2001

Predictions of sediment toxicity using consensus-based freshwater sediment quality guidelines

The objectives of this study were to compare approaches for evaluating the combined effects of chemical mixtures on the toxicity in field-collected sediments and to evaluate the ability of consensus-based probable effect concentrations (PECs) to predict toxicity in a freshwater database on both a national and regional geographic basis. A database was developed from 92 published reports, which included a total of 1,657 samples with high-quality matching sediment toxicity and chemistry data from across North America. The database was comprised primarily of 10- to 14-day or 28- to 42-day toxicity tests with the amphipod Hyalella azteca (designated as the HA10 or HA28 tests) and 10- to 14-day toxicity tests with the midges Chironomus tentans or C. riparius (designated as the CS10 test). Mean PEC quotients were calculated to provide an overall measure of chemical contamination and to support an evaluation of the combined effects of multiple contaminants in sediments. There was an overall increase in the incidence of toxicity with an increase in the mean quotients in all three tests. A consistent increase in the toxicity in all three tests occurred at a mean quotient > 0.5, however, the overall incidence of toxicity was greater in the HA28 test compared to the short-term tests. The longer-term tests, in which survival and growth are measured, tend to be more sensitive than the shorter-term tests, with acute to chronic ratios on the order of six indicated for H. azteca . Different patterns were observed among the various procedures used to calculate mean quotients. For example, in the HA28 test, a relatively abrupt increase in toxicity was associated with elevated polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) alone or with elevated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) alone, compared to the pattern of a gradual increase in toxicity observed with quotients calculated using a combination of metals, PAHs, and PCBs. These analyses indicate that the different patterns in toxicity may be the result of unique chemical signals associated with individual contaminants in samples. Though mean quotients can be used to classify samples as toxic or nontoxic, individual quotients might be useful in helping identify substances that may be causing or substantially contributing to the observed toxicity. An increase in the incidence of toxicity was observed with increasing mean quotients within most of the regions, basins, and areas in North America for all three toxicity tests. The results of these analyses indicate that the consensus-based PECs can be used to reliably predict toxicity of sediments on both a regional and national basis.

Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxico↗

USGS2001

Toxicity assessment of sediments from the Grand Calumet River and Indiana Harbor Canal in northwestern Indiana, USA

The objective of this study was to evaluate the toxicity of sediments from the Grand Calumet River and Indiana Harbor Canal located in northwestern Indiana, USA. Toxicity tests used in this assessment included 10-day sediment exposures with the amphipod Hyalella azteca , 31-day sediment exposures with the oligochaete Lumbriculus variegatus , and the Microtox® Solid-Phase Sediment Toxicity Test. A total of 30 sampling stations were selected in locations that had limited historic matching toxicity and chemistry data. Toxic effects on amphipod survival were observed in 60% of the samples from the assessment area. Results of a toxicity test with oligochaetes indicated that sediments from the assessment area were too toxic to be used in proposed bioaccumulation testing. Measurement of amphipod length after the 10-day exposures did not provide useful information beyond that provided by the survival endpoint. Seven of the 15 samples that were identified as toxic in the amphipod tests were not identified as toxic in the Microtox test, indicating that the 10-day H. azteca test was more sensitive than the Microtox test. Samples that were toxic tended to have the highest concentrations of metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). The toxic samples often had an excess of simultaneously extracted metals (SEM) relative to acid volatile sulfide (AVS) and had multiple exceedances of probable effect concentrations (PECs). Metals may have contributed to the toxicity of samples that had both an excess molar concentration of SEM relative to AVS and elevated concentrations of metals in pore water. However, of the samples that had an excess of SEM relative to AVS, only 38% of these samples had elevated concentration of metals in pore water. The lack of correspondence between SEM-AVS and pore water metals indicates that there are variables in addition to AVS controlling the concentrations of metals in pore water. A mean PEC quotient of 3.4 (based on concentrations of metals, PAHs, and PCBs) was exceeded in 33% of the sediment samples and a mean quotient of 0.63 was exceeded in 70% of the thirty sediment samples from the assessment area. A 50% incidence of toxicity has been previously reported in a database for sediment tests with H. azteca at a mean quotient of 3.4 in 10-day exposures and at a mean quotient of 0.63 in 28-day exposures. Among the Indiana Harbor samples, most of the samples with a mean PEC quotient above 0.63 ( i.e. , 15 of 21; 71%) and above 3.4 ( i.e. , 10 of 10; 100%) were toxic to amphipods. Results of this study and previous studies demonstrate that sediments from this assessment area are among the most contaminated and toxic that have ever been reported.

Indiana↗

USGS2010

Sediment contamination of residential streams in the metropolitan Kansas City area, USA: Part II. whole-sediment toxicity to the amphipod hyalella azteca

This is the second part of a study that evaluates the influence of nonpoint sources on the sediment quality of five adjacent streams within the metropolitan Kansas City area, central United States. Physical, chemical, and toxicity data (Hyalella azteca 28-day whole-sediment toxicity test) for 29 samples collected in 2003 were used for this evaluation, and the potential causes for the toxic effects were explored. The sediments exhibited a low to moderate toxicity, with five samples identified as toxic to H. azteca. Metals did not likely cause the toxicity based on low concentrations of metals in the pore water and elevated concentrations of acid volatile sulfide in the sediments. Although individual polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) frequently exceeded effect-based sediment quality guidelines [probable effect concentrations (PECs)], only four of the samples had a PEC quotient (PEC-Q) for total PAHs over 1.0 and only one of these four samples was identified as toxic. For the mean PEC-Q for organochlorine compounds (chlordane, dieldrin, sum DDEs), 4 of the 12 samples with a mean PEC-Q above 1.0 were toxic and 4 of the 8 samples with a mean PEC-Q above 3.0 were toxic. Additionally, four of eight samples were toxic, with a mean PEC-Q above 1.0 based on metals, PAHs, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and organochlorine pesticides. The increase in the incidence of toxicity with the increase in the mean PEC-Q based on organochlorine pesticides or based on metals, PAHs, PCBs, and organochlorine pesticides suggests that organochlorine pesticides might have contributed to the observed toxicity and that the use of a mean PEC-Q, rather than PEC-Qs for individual compounds, might be more informative in predicting toxic effects. Our study shows that stream sediments subject to predominant nonpoint sources contamination can be toxic and that many factors, including analysis of a full suite of PAHs and pesticides of both past and present urban applications and the origins of these organic compounds, are important to identify the causes of toxicity.

Kansas, Missouri↗