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373 recordsLinked to original sources
USGS2024

The Europa Imaging System (EIS) investigation

The Europa Imaging System (EIS) consists of a Narrow-Angle Camera (NAC) and a Wide-Angle Camera (WAC) that are designed to work together to address high-priority science objectives regarding Europa’s geology, composition, and the nature of its ice shell. EIS accommodates variable geometry and illumination during rapid, low-altitude flybys with both framing and pushbroom imaging capability using rapid-readout, 8-megapixel (4k × 2k) detectors. Color observations are acquired using pushbroom imaging with up to six broadband filters. The data processing units (DPUs) perform digital time delay integration (TDI) to enhance signal-to-noise ratios and use readout strategies to measure and correct spacecraft jitter. The NAC has a 2.3° × 1.2° field of view (FOV) with a 10-μrad instantaneous FOV (IFOV), thus achieving 0.5-m pixel scale over a swath that is 2 km wide and several km long from a range of 50 km. The NAC is mounted on a 2-axis gimbal, ±30° cross- and along-track, that enables independent targeting and near-global (≥90%) mapping of Europa at ≤100-m pixel scale (to date, only ∼15% of Europa has been imaged at ≤900 m/pixel), as well as stereo imaging from as close as 50-km altitude to generate digital terrain models (DTMs) with ≤4-m ground sample distance (GSD) and ≤0.5-m vertical precision. The NAC will also perform observations at long range to search for potential erupting plumes, achieving 10-km pixel scale at a distance of one million kilometers. The WAC has a 48° × 24° FOV with a 218-μrad IFOV, achieving 11-m pixel scale at the center of a 44-km-wide swath from a range of 50 km, and generating DTMs with 32-m GSD and ≤4-m vertical precision. The WAC is designed to acquire three-line pushbroom stereo and color swaths along flyby ground-tracks.

Space Science Reviews↗
USGS2026

Assessing the state of hydrologic science in the Upper Klamath Basin—A comprehensive review of data, tools, and models

Water demand in the Upper Klamath Basin (UKB) from various stakeholders and ecological needs often outstrips available supply, leading to persistent management challenges. This study reviews the state of hydrologic science within the UKB as of 2025—specifically, the tools, data, and models available for assessing five key components of the water system: (1) surface water; (2) precipitation; (3) evapotranspiration; (4) groundwater; and (5) water use. The UKB water supply is critical for Native American communities, regional agriculture, and federally listed fishes and faces challenges from competing needs, climate variability, and operational/regulatory requirements. We assess existing datasets, regional and national models, and historical studies to understand the available resources and identify gaps that may hinder integrated water assessments and management. Our findings indicate areas where improvements in data collection and model precision could improve the accuracy of water-availability forecasts and support water-management practices. This review can inform near-term forecasting, assist in optimizing water-resource data collection and management strategies, and support regional water-availability assessments of the basin.

Oregon↗
USGS2024

Characterization of the water resources of the Pamunkey River watershed in Virginia—A review of water science, management, and traditional ecological knowledge

In central Virginia, the Pamunkey Indian Tribe and Reservation are facing increasingly complex water resource issues related to quantity and quality. Documentation of surface-water, groundwater, water quality, land subsidence, sea-level rise, and river ecology issues in the Pamunkey River watershed and incorporation of traditional ecological knowledge into these research topics may improve understanding of the water resources broadly. This report summarizes the relevant traditional ecological knowledge and scientific literature to elucidate gaps in the total combined knowledge of a suite of water science topics concerning the Pamunkey River watershed. This suite of water science topics includes some of the issues that the Pamunkey Indian Tribe and Reservation are facing within the watershed: fragmentation of streams and management of streamflow, flooding, degrading water quality, groundwater extraction, relative sea-level rise, rapid changes in ecosystems, loss of ecological and biological diversity, and climate change. Gaps in total combined knowledge are pervasive throughout each of these water resource topics. Identifying these knowledge gaps can help inform future research and management strategies.

Virginia↗
USGS2026

Estimating paleotemperature using stable isotopes of soil-formed phyllosilicates from paleosols: A review

Fossilized soils, or paleosols, contain soil-formed phyllosilicates whose stable isotopic compositions may be used to calculate paleotemperature and thus reconstruct ancient terrestrial environments. Though paleosols are common in the geologic record, the use of phyllosilicates as paleotemperature proxies is limited in the literature owing to difficulties with selecting optimal paleosols, isolation from non-clay minerals and organic materials, mixtures of phyllosilicates in natural samples, wide variations of chemical compositions for phyllosilicates, and limited to undefined equilibrium fractionation factors between phyllosilicates-water. Here, we address these challenges by examining and comparing methods used for sample selection, mineral isolation, pretreatments, mineral identification, conventional and developing methods for oxygen and hydrogen isotopic analyses, and determination of phyllosilicate-water equilibrium fractionation factors, concluding with recommendations for best approaches for paleotemperature estimation. Additionally, we discuss how to identify and avoid detrital phyllosilicates, the impacts of diagenesis, comparison of stable isotope and non-isotope paleosol paleotemperature proxies, and challenges and opportunities for broadly using paleosols as paleoclimate archives. With ongoing efforts to refine this multi-faceted paleotemperature approach, the stable isotope geochemistry of soil-formed phyllosilicates continues to be an invaluable proxy system, enhancing our understanding of terrestrial paleoenvironments and paleoclimate.

Kansas↗
USGS2026

Remote compositional analyses of space-weathered lunar maria

Visible-to-shortwave infrared (VSWIR) reflectance spectroscopy has revolutionized our understanding of planetary surface compositions. However, space-weathering processes on airless bodies complicate quantitative compositional analyses. Here, we present a framework to isolate the signatures of space weathering in VSWIR spectra of lunar maria by leveraging radiative transfer modeling under the assumptions that (i) a space-weathered target can be expressed as a mixture of fresh and fully space-weathered components and (ii) remaining signatures can be modeled by including agglutinates as an end-member component. We first validate this approach against laboratory spectra of space-weathered Apollo mare soils of known mineral compositions using a probabilistic Markov Chain Monte Carlo implementation of the Hapke radiative transfer model. Second, we illustrate how this approach can be applied to orbital Moon Mineralogy Mapper data. The proposed space-weathering correction workflow for lunar maria could be expanded to other lunar lithologies and applied to existing and future data sets.

Planetary Science Journal↗
USGS2021

Critical review of mercury methylation and methylmercury demethylation rate constants in aquatic sediments for biogeochemical modeling

Mercury is a toxin that causes neurological impairments in adults, is particularly harmful for fetuses and children, and is deadly in severe cases, making it a worldwide health concern. Methylmercury (MeHg) is the environmentally relevant form of mercury (Hg) because it biomagnifies along the food chain. Methylmercury is mainly produced in aquatic sediments via methylation of inorganic Hg (Hg(II)) and transformed back via demethylation. Because transformation rates determine MeHg concentrations, quantification of methylation and demethylation rates is needed to inform management of MeHg. Published rate constants for Hg(II) methylation ( 𝑘 𝑚 ) and MeHg demethylation ( 𝑘 𝑑 ) vary greatly, stemming partly from differences in experimental methods. We conducted a comprehensive review of rate laws, evaluated published rate constants, and performed biogeochemical simulations to assess variability in reported 𝑘 𝑚 and 𝑘 𝑑 . Based on selected studies employing the same pseudo-first-order rate law and similar experimental methods, we found that 𝑘 𝑚 = 0.04 ± 0.03 d −1 is a reasonable range for wetland sediments. Over a number of environments, maximum 𝑘 𝑑 was smaller at sites without Hg source ( 𝑘 𝑑 = 0.5 d −1 ) than at sites with identified Hg source ( 𝑘 𝑑 = 1.8 d −1 ). Larger variability and higher uncertainty in 𝑘 𝑑 compared to 𝑘 𝑚 highlight the need for more research on MeHg demethylation rates. This critical review: (a) aids the design of future experimental studies of 𝑘 𝑚 and 𝑘 𝑑 ; (b) provides guidance for comparing rate constants from different studies; (c) presents a biogeochemical reaction model to assess rate constants; and (d) informs selection of 𝑘 𝑚 and 𝑘 𝑑 values from the literature for use in model simulations.

Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Tech↗
USGS2026

Restoring dryland water cycles for precipitation feedback and climate stability; a review

Drylands across the globe are experiencing intensifying water scarcity, land degradation, and hydroclimatic extremes. This review integrates evidence from multidecadal field studies, hydrologic monitoring, geomorphic and ecological assessments, remote sensing, and land–atmosphere science to evaluate how restoration influences key components of the terrestrial water cycle. Low-tech natural infrastructure in dryland streams (NIDS)—including check dams, leaky weirs, one-rock dams, and gabions—has emerged as a promising but under-synthesized nature-based solution for restoring hydrologic function in these environments. We describe the mechanisms through which these interventions modify runoff detention, infiltration, sediment and alluvial storage, shallow-groundwater recharge, vegetation recovery, and surface-energy partitioning, and we summarize outcomes across diverse dryland settings. Findings consistently show increased water residence time, enhanced soil-moisture storage, expanded riparian vegetation, extended flow duration, and shifts toward greater latent-heat flux—producing localized cooling and strengthened ecohydrological feedbacks. Building on these localized effects, we articulate a hypothesis that links the spatial extent of restoration, the density of NIDS per unit drainage area, and the magnitude of the latent-to-sensible-heat contrast generated by wetter post-rainfall conditions. Specifically, we hypothesize that when NIDS are implemented at densities permitted by topography and across areas large enough to maintain elevated soil moisture after storm events, the resulting increases in latent heat flux, surface cooling, and boundary-layer moistening may enhance moisture convergence and boundary-layer development, potentially increasing the likelihood or stability of convective precipitation, analogous to how reductions in these processes have contributed to regional drought intensification. These land–atmosphere feedbacks remain untested at scale but represent an important research Frontier. By integrating hydrologic, geomorphic, ecological, and atmospheric perspectives, this review provides a comprehensive framework for considering how low-tech, landscape-scale interventions can strengthen watershed resilience and contribute to climate-relevant nature-based solutions.

Arizona↗
USGS2025

A review of post-wildfire adaptations of surface-water-quality models: Synthesis, gaps, and opportunities

As wildfires increasingly affect water-supply watersheds, the demand for models to predict water-quality responses is increasing. This work reviews and synthesizes existing post-wildfire applications of water-quality models in the context of geographic and ecohydrological distribution, hydrologic and water-quality response process representation, model parameterization, model and input data scales, model calibration data availability, as well as calibration and performance evaluation approaches. Emphasis is placed on models that simulate water-quality output, rather than sediment and erosional response as the primary focus. Here, identified gaps and opportunities to advance the post-wildfire application of water-quality models include: 1. applying models in under-represented geographic and ecohydrologic regions, 2. simulating multiple streamflow generation mechanisms, including groundwater, with an emphasis on shifting dominant flow pathways as the landscape recovers following wildfire, 3. adding studies that include the simulation of metals, 4. incorporating more biogeochemical and in-stream processes to model applications, 5. applying finer spatial and temporal resolution of precipitation data input as well as finer spatial resolution hydrologic response units, 6. implementing fully distributed grid or element models or finer resolution response units to capture burn severity heterogeneity, 7. collecting enhanced water-quality data for model calibration and validation, 8. conducting model-intercomparison studies, and 9. developing model parameter value guidance in post-wildfire applications. These identified gaps and opportunities may assist users in deciding on key processes and approaches to consider in modeling post-wildfire water-quality conditions.

Science of the Total Environment↗
USGS2024

Aftershock forecasting

Aftershocks can compound the impacts of a major earthquake, disrupting recovery efforts and potentially further damaging weakened buildings and infrastructure. Forecasts of the probability of aftershocks can therefore aid decision-making during earthquake response and recovery. Several countries issue authoritative aftershock forecasts. Most aftershock forecasts are based on simple statistical models that were first developed in the 1980s and remain the best available models. We review these statistical models, and the wide-ranging research to advance aftershock forecasting through better statistical, physical, and machine learning methods. Physics-based forecasts based on mainshock stress changes can sometimes match the statistical models in testing, but don’t yet outperform them. Physical models are also hampered by unsolved problems such as the mechanics of dynamic triggering and the influence of background conditions. Initial work on machine learning forecasts shows promise, and new machine learning earthquake catalogs provide an opportunity to advance all types of aftershock forecasts.

Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences↗
USGS2026

Magnetic storms and geoelectric hazards

Magnetic storms induce geoelectric fields at Earth's surface that can interfere with grounded long-line systems. The September 1859 storm disrupted global telegraph operations, the March 1989 storm caused a blackout in Canada and interfered with electric-power-transmission systems in the United States, and other storms have had related impacts. The geographic and temporal dependence of geoelectric fields are functions of both geomagnetic variation and local surface impedance, which differ considerably across different geological regions. These dependencies can be mapped across the contiguous United States by combining magnetotelluric impedance tensors with ground magnetometer time series. This review illustrates such mapping for the 1989 storm and shows that power-system interference was experienced where surface impedance is high, and when and where geoelectric fields were intense. Statistical analyses indicate that storms comparable to that of March 1989 occur roughly once every four solar cycles. Ongoing developments in numerical modeling and real-time monitoring are anticipated to enable prediction of geoelectric hazards. ▪ Magnetic storms can induced electric fields in the solid Earth that interfere with electric-power-transmission systems. ▪ Geoelectric hazards depend on the storm-time geomagnetic disturbance and the electrical conductivity structure of Earth. ▪ Historically, impacts on telecommunication and power-transmission systems in the United States have been concentrated in the East and Midwest. ▪ The future occurrence of a magnetic superstorm could cause widespread disruption of electric-power-transmission systems.

Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences↗
USGS2024

A conceptual framework to assess post-wildfire water quality: State of the science and knowledge gaps

Wildfire substantially alters aquatic ecosystems by inducing moderate to catastrophic physical and chemical changes. However, the relations of environmental and watershed variables that drive those effects are complex. We present a Driver-Factor-Stressor-Effect (DFSE) conceptual framework to assess the current state of the science related to post-wildfire water-quality. We reviewed 64 peer-reviewed papers using the DFSE framework to identify drivers, factors, stressors, and effects associated with each study. A total of five drivers were identified and ranked according to their frequency of occurrence in the literature: atmospheric processes > fire characteristics > ecologic processes and characteristics > land surface characteristics > soil characteristics. Commonly reported stressors include increased nutrients, runoff, and sediment transport. Furthermore, although several different factors have been used at least once to explain water-quality effects, relatively few factors outside of precipitation and fire characteristics are frequently studied. We identified several gaps indicating the need for long-term monitoring, multi-factor studies, consideration of organic contaminants, consideration of groundwater, and inclusion of soil characteristics. This assessment expands on other reviews and meta-analyses by exploring causal linkages between influential variables and overall effects in post-wildfire watersheds. Information gathered from our assessment and the framework itself can be used to inform future monitoring plans and as a guide for modeling efforts focused on better understanding specific processes or to mitigate potential risks of post-wildfire water quality.

Water Resources Research↗
USGS2025

A review of abrupt permafrost thaw: Definitions, usage, and a proposed conceptual framework

Purpose of Review We review how ‘abrupt thaw’ has been used in published studies, compare these definitions to abrupt processes in other Earth science disciplines, and provide a definitive framework for how abrupt thaw should be used in the context of permafrost science. Recent Findings We address several aspects of permafrost systems necessary for abrupt thaw to occur and propose a framework for classifying permafrost processes as abrupt thaw in the future. Based on a literature review and our collective expertise, we propose that abrupt thaw refers to thaw processes that lead to a substantial persistent environmental change within a few decades. Abrupt thaw typically occurs in ice-rich permafrost but may be initiated in ice-poor permafrost by external factors such as hydrologic change (i.e., increased streamflow, soil moisture fluctuations, altered groundwater recharge) or wildfire. Summary Permafrost thaw alters greenhouse gas emissions, soil and vegetation properties, and hydrologic flow, threatening infrastructure and the cultures and livelihoods of northern communities. The term ‘abrupt thaw’ has emerged in scientific discourse over the past two decades to differentiate processes that rapidly impact large depths of permafrost, such as thermokarst, from more gradual, top-down thaw processes that impact centimeters of near-surface permafrost over years to decades. However, there has been no formal definition for abrupt thaw and its use in the scientific literature has varied considerably. Our standardized definition of abrupt thaw offers a path forward to better understand drivers and patterns of abrupt thaw and its consequences for global greenhouse gas budgets, impacts to infrastructure and land-use, and Arctic policy- and decision-making.

Current Climate Change Reports↗
USGS2025

A method to obtain remotely sensed grain size distributions from nonplanar granular deposits

Constraining the grain size distribution of granular deposits with complex surfaces is difficult with existing approaches. Field and laboratory techniques are time consuming and limited by the maximum grain size that laboratories can accommodate. In this study, we present a new method to identify the coarse fraction of the grain size distribution at a debris-flow fan deposit surveyed with terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) in Glenwood Canyon, Colorado, USA. This method is a novel grain segmentation algorithm developed for application to point cloud data of deposits with complex surfaces and angular grains ranging in size from centimeters to a meter. This approach combines an existing random forest machine learning method with a novel iterative clustering algorithm. We compared the grain size distribution from our algorithm with a Wolman pebble count conducted in the field, and found a root mean squared error of less than 2 cm from the 5th to 95th percentile of the grain size distribution of grains ranging from cobble to boulder sized (6.3–78 cm in our application). Finally, we compared our new algorithm with an existing open-source grain segregation algorithm, and our method outperformed the selected alternative when applied to the debris-flow deposit point cloud.

Colorado↗
USGS2025

Did they feel it? Legacy maroseismic data illuminates an engimatic 20th century earthquake

The challenges and the importance of preserving legacy instrumental records of earthquakes are now well-recognized (e.g., Richards & Hellweg, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1785/0220200053 ). Seismologists may not be aware of parallel challenges and opportunities with legacy macroseismic data for earthquakes in the United States. For much of the 20th century, macroseismic data were collected by a series of U.S. government agencies using a standard questionnaire distributed on postcards. Published summaries of postcards provide macroseismic data akin to modern Did You Feel It? questionnaire responses. In this paper we focus on the M 6.5 Fickle Hill, California earthquake, on 21 December 1954 (Hellweg et al., 2025) as a proof-of-concept, illustrating the potential of what we dub Did They Feel It? (DTFI) data to improve our understanding of significant 20th century U.S. earthquakes for which instrumental data are sparse. Legacy macroseismic data interpreted following modern conventions can potentially constrain traditional ShakeMaps at a level of detail and accuracy that in some respects rival maps for modern earthquakes. The updated ShakeMap for the 1954 Fickle Hill earthquake, also drawing from recently published media and first-person accounts, supports the location, depth, and stress drop value estimated from available instrumental data (Hellweg et al., 2025).

California↗
USGS2025

Ambient field seismology in critical zone hydrological sciences

Passive ambient noise monitoring is an emerging tool in environmental seismology, leveraging the ambient seismic field to assess temporal variations in shallow subsurface properties. This review focuses on the potential and challenges of using scattered coda waves from noise correlation functions to monitor critical zone dynamics. The sensitivity of seismic velocities to various environmental factors, including precipitation, snowmelt, atmospheric pressure, and groundwater fluctuations, underscores the method’s versatility. While coda waves excel in detecting subtle changes due to their scattered nature, ballistic waves provide higher spatial resolution, albeit with challenges in source stability. Advances in seismic sensing, including distributed acoustic sensing and low-cost geophone networks, have enabled high-resolution monitoring of hydrological processes, subsurface deformation, and seismic hazards. Integrating seismic data with hydrological models provides insights into water storage, pore pressure changes, and soil moisture dynamics. However, limitations in spatial resolution, calibration with ground truth data, and coupled effects between environmental factors remain key challenges. This review emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in refining methodologies, enhancing sensor deployments, and addressing data gaps. Passive seismic monitoring offers opportunities to understand critical zone processes and their broader impacts on seismic hazards and environmental sustainability.

Comptes Rendus. Géoscience↗
USGS2025

Effect of land cover type on 3D deformation recovery from synthetically deformed high-resolution satellite optical imagery

The limits of detection for earthquake surface deformation in the spatial domain have improved with advances in remote sensing imagery data availability, resolution, and analysis. Sub-pixel correlation and digital elevation model (DEM) differencing from sub-meter, earthquake-spanning satellite optical imagery has enhanced surface rupture mapping and deformation measurements. However, knowledge of measurement accuracy and uncertainty is limited. To address this, we construct orthophotos and digital elevation models (DEMs) from repeat high resolution (∼0.5 m) satellite optical imagery along two sections of the Garlock fault, California with clear fault geomorphology and differing land cover. We deform later sets of DEMs and images with synthetic earthquakes containing both diffuse and discrete horizontal and vertical displacements. Sub-pixel image correlation and DEM differencing demonstrate how vegetation degrades recovered displacement accuracy. In barren land cover, horizontal displacements are detectable to an expected ∼1/10th-pixel size. With shrubs, trees, and grass, detectable displacements increase to >1/2-pixel size, and filtering results by correlation score and using elevation values as input rather than image values improves accuracy. Vertical displacement detection thresholds remain lower in vegetation, at >1-pixel size. Higher slope angles degrade displacement recovery, worsened by vegetation. Diminishing seasonal separation improves accuracy over vegetated regions, though not to the level achieved in barren environments. These results will inform research and operational efforts on the utility of high resolution satellite optical imagery for detecting deformation in varied land cover. Furthermore, they reveal where alternative measurements, such as from LiDAR or radar interferometry, are required to mitigate the effects of vegetation and capture fine-scale crustal deformation.

California↗
USGS2026

Widespread landslide activity in an extreme wet season and implications for regional sediment management, eastern San Francisco Bay area, California

Watershed sediment production is expected to increase in a warmer future with more extreme rain, with cascading effects throughout drainage and sediment-transport networks. This study investigated landscape-scale sediment movement in the eastern San Francisco Bay area, California, USA, during the extreme 2016–2017 wet season that brought major rainfall, landslides, and flooding. Mapping 8,928 landslides across a 1,050-km 2 study area revealed new sediment yield of 510–956 t/km 2 , equivalent to denudation of 193–361 mm/ky. These results correspond closely to long-term denudation rates in the northern and central California Coast Ranges, indicating that mass wasting in very wet years dominates long-term sediment mobilization. However, due to long residence times in drainage networks, the 2017 landslides contributed at most ∼1%–2% of the estimated locally derived fluvial sediment transport to San Francisco Bay. Although the amount of sediment mobilized did not threaten municipal water supplies, small rangeland impoundments in this mixed-use landscape lost storage capacity to new sedimentation. Considering regional sediment supply and demand, even the exceptionally large sediment delivery in an extreme wet year cannot meet the need for sediment to accrete tidal wetlands in the bay. To keep pace with rising sea levels, this abnormally high terrestrial sediment input would need to occur in 50 of the next 75 years, an unlikely occurrence due to the prevalence of recent drought years. Shoreline protection and restoration in the bay would need additional sources of sediment, such as through management of dredged sediment through beneficial-reuse programs.

California↗
USGS2026

Patterns and drivers of cliff erosion in Big Sur, California, USA using repeat photogrammetry, 2017–2023

Seacliff erosion in steep terrain poses major risks to transportation and critical infrastructure. In Big Sur, California, USA, seacliff erosion threatens the sustainability of the central coast stretch of California State Route 1, a transportation corridor that is critical to the region's economy. Published cliff retreat rates for the region range from 1 to 40 cm yr −1 , highlighting that high-resolution, process-based studies could enhance understanding of the causes of spatial and temporal variability. We quantified cliff erosion and investigated its drivers along ∼13 km of the Big Sur coastline at week–month timescales during the late fall to early spring wet seasons between January 2017 and June 2023 by analyzing 3D point clouds developed from aerial imagery using four-dimensional structure-from-motion (4D SfM) photogrammetry techniques. We calculated cliff face retreat rates of 2.23 ± 3.06 cm yr −1 (mean ±1 σ ), an order of magnitude lower than long-term estimated rates for the region (which included large deep-seated landslides), but in line with short-term rates reported across California. Change detection imagery comparison, cliff profiles through time, and statistical analysis reveal a cyclical cliff evolution process in which erosion by wave action at the cliff base destabilizes the cliff and primes it for subsequent failure during precipitation events. Although more erosion by volume could be attributed to precipitation-induced increases in soil moisture (784 m 3 km −1 yr −1 ) compared with erosion attributed to wave power (282 m 3 km −1 yr −1 ), our observations underscore the coupled nature of these processes in driving cliff evolution, consistent with established theory and observations.

California↗