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At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
USGS1998

Glaciation and regional ground-water flow in the Fennoscandian Shield: Site 94

Results from a regional-scale ground-water flow model of the Fennoscandian shield suggest that ground-water flow is strongly affected by surface conditions associated with climatic change and glaciation. The model was used to run a series of numerical simulations of variable-density ground-water flow in a 1500-km-long and approximately 10-km-deep cross-section that passes through southern Sweden. Ground-water flow and shield brine transport in the cross-sectional model are controlled by an assumed time evolution of surface conditions over the next 140 ka. Simulations show that, under periglacial conditions, permafrost may locally or extensively impede the free recharge or discharge of ground water. Below cold-based glacial ice, no recharge or discharge of ground water occurs. Both of these conditions result in the settling of shield brine and consequent freshening of near-surface water in areas of natural discharge blocked by permafrost. The presence of warm-based ice with basal melting creates a potential for ground-water recharge rates much larger than under present, ice-free conditions. Recharging basal meltwater can reach depths of a few kilometers in a few thousand years. The vast majority of recharged water is accommodated through storage in the volume of bedrock below the local area of recharge; regional (lateral) redistribution of recharged water by subsurface flow is minor over the duration of a glacial advance (~10 ka). During glacial retreat, the weight of the ice overlying a given surface location decreases, and significant upward flow of ground water may occur below the ice sheet due to pressure release, despite the continued potential for recharge of basal meltwater. Excess meltwater must exit from below the glacier through subglacial cavities and channels. Subsurface penetration of meltwater during glacial advance and up-flow during glacial retreat are greatest if the loading efficiency of the shield rock is low. The maximum rate of ground-water discharge occurs at the receding ice margin, and some discharge occurs below incursive post-glacial seas. The simulation results suggest that vertical movement of deep shield brines induced by the next few glacial cycles should not increase the concentration of dissolved solids significantly above present-day levels. However, the concentration of dissolved solids should decrease significantly at depths of up to several kilometers during periods of glacial meltwater recharge. The meltwater may reside in the subsurface for periods exceeding 10 ka and may bring oxygenated conditions to an otherwise reducing chemical environment.

SKI Report↗
USGS1984

Causes of acidification of four streams on Laurel Hilld in southwestern Pennsylvania

Atmospheric deposition, soils developed from bedrock, a natural bog, gas wells, and a ski area were all investigated as possible sources of water quality degradation for four streams on Laurel Hill in southwestern Pennsylvania where fish kills have been reported since 1960. An intensive study of the chemistry of atmospheric deposition, soil leachate, and stream water and fish populations was conducted on these basins during 1980–1981 with emphasis on dormant season periods with runoff from snowmelt and rain. Although bedrock geology was found to control the natural buffering capacity of these streams, only acid precipitation could be linked to sharp drops in pH and increases in total Al concentrations observed during stormflows in the poorly buffered streams. Three poorly buffered streams exhibited drops to pH 4.4 to 4.5 and increases in total Al concentrations up to 1.5 mg/L during observed peak flows. Mineral soil leachate from the three major soil series on the basins during this time exhibited a low pH of 4.3 and mean total Al concentrations of 3.6 mg/L, indicating stream response during storms was closely linked to chemistry of soil leachate. Poorly buffered streams did not support reproducing populations of trout ( Salmonidae sp.) or other fishes. In contrast, one well-buffered stream (20 mg/L CaCO 3 ) exhibited drops to pH 5.5 during peak flow and supported reproducing trout and sculpin ( Cottus bairdi ) populations. The acidification of the four streams studied was attributed to atmospheric deposition.

Journal of Environmental Quality↗
USGS2008

Future intrusion of oxygenated glacial meltwaters into the Fennoscandian shield: A possibility to consider in performance assessments for nuclear-waste disposal sites?

Provost et al. (1998) and Glynn and Voss (1999; also published in Glynn et al., 1999) considered the possibility that during future glaciations, oxygenated glacial meltwaters from two- to three-kilometer thick ice sheets could potentially intrude to the 500 m depth of planned nuclear-waste repositories. This possibility has been of concern because of potential negative effects on the stability of the repository engineered environment, and because of the potential mobilization of radionuclides should the oxygenated waters come into contact with the radioactive waste. The above reports argued that given the current state of knowledge, it was hard to discount the possibility that oxygenated waters could penetrate to repository level depth. The reports also suggested that oxidizing conditions might be present in the fractured rock environment for significant amounts of time, on the order of thousands to tens of thousands of years. In some earlier reports, Swedish and Finnish governmental agencies in charge of nuclear-waste disposal had considered the possibility that oxygenated meltwaters might intrude to the repository depth (SKI: 1992; Martinerie et al, 1992; Ahonen and Vieno, 1994). Subsequent to the publication of Provost et al. (1998), Glynn et al. (1999) and Glynn and Voss (1999), the Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Handling Company (SKB) commissioned efforts to examine more thoroughly the possibilities that oxygenated meltwaters might occur under ice-sheet conditions and intrude to the repository depth.

Fennoscandian Shield↗
USGS2022

Colorado and Landsat

Colorado’s geography seems designed to impress. Although the Rocky Mountains takes up only one-half of the State, more than 50 of its peaks rise at least 14,000 feet above sea level—far more “fourteeners” than any other State. Many of these mountains receive hundreds of inches of snow annually. The Rocky Mountains provide the Continental Divide, or watershed boundary, for North America. Three of the United States’ seven longest rivers originate in Colorado’s mountains: the Rio Grande, the Colorado, and the Arkansas Rivers. The mountains are also home to 11 national forests. Residents and tourists find many ways to appreciate the stunning views, from hiking and skiing to camping and birdwatching, in ecosystems that also include grasslands and shrublands.

Colorado↗
USGS2016

Eruptive history of Mammoth Mountain and its mafic periphery, California

This report and accompanying geologic map portray the eruptive history of Mammoth Mountain and a surrounding array of contemporaneous volcanic units that erupted in its near periphery. The moderately alkaline Mammoth eruptive suite, basaltic to rhyodacitic, represents a discrete new magmatic system, less than 250,000 years old, that followed decline of the subalkaline rhyolitic system active beneath adjacent Long Valley Caldera since 2.2 Ma (Hildreth, 2004). The scattered vent array of the Mammoth system, 10 by 20 km wide, is unrelated to the rangefront fault zone, and its broad nonlinear footprint ignores both Long Valley Caldera and the younger Mono-Inyo rangefront vent alignment. The Mammoth Lakes area of Mono County, owing to its spectacular alpine landscape, has become one of California’s busiest recreational playgrounds and a regional center of real estate development. The name applies to the town of Mammoth Lakes as well as to the cluster of lakes in a large cirque southwest of town that is now locally called the Lakes Basin. The town has spread around the eastern base of Mammoth Mountain, a late Pleistocene pile of silicic lava domes, and has locally expanded onto lower slopes of the mountain itself (fig. 1). Looming nearly 1,000 m above the downtown area, much of the 5-km-wide volcanic edifice has been laced with chair lifts, gondolas, ski runs, and bike paths by the Mammoth Mountain Ski Area, a corporate entity under permit from Inyo National Forest. In addition to skiing, longestablished, snowboarding and summertime mountain biking have recently become major activities. Tourism to Mammoth Lakes is estimated to be 1,300,000 visitors per winter and 1,500,000 per summer. Some of America’s top long-distance runners also live and train in Mammoth Lakes, attracted by its elevation and its variety of challenging trails. At the western base of Mammoth Mountain, along the canyon of the Middle Fork San Joaquin River, lies the Devils Postpile National Monument, a National Park Service enclave surrounded by extensive wilderness areas administered by the U.S. Forest Service. As many as 2,000 visitors per day enter the monument during the summer season. The area also contains several of the busiest trailheads in the Sierra Nevada, providing wilderness access for hikers, pack animals, mountaineers, and fishermen. Many geographic names that appear in this report are informal despite having been in local use for decades. Most appear on maps distributed by the Town of Mammoth Lakes or the Mammoth Mountain Ski Area and can be found here on map figures 2–5, on several photo figures, and on the geologic map.

California↗
USGS2024

Lava flow impacts on the built environment: Insights from a new global dataset

The recent destruction of thousands of homes by lava flows from La Palma volcano, Canary Islands, and Nyiragongo volcano, Democratic Republic of Congo, serves as a reminder of the devastating impact that lava flows can have on communities living in volcanically active regions. Damage to buildings and infrastructure can have widespread and long-lasting effects on rehabilitation and livelihoods. Our understanding of how lava flows interact with buildings is limited and based upon sparse empirical data. Often a binary impact is assumed (destroyed when in contact with the flow and intact when not in contact with the flow), although previous events have shown this to be an oversimplification. Empirical damage data collected after past events provide an evidence base from which to better understand lava flow impacts across a range of building types, environments, and eruption styles, as well as to explore the temporal and spatial trends in these impacts. However, information on lava flow impacts is scattered across literature, reports, and maps; no comprehensive dataset of lava flow impacts exists. In this study, we compile and standardise lava flow impact information from previously compiled data, eruption records, and published literature to create the first comprehensive global dataset of impacts on the built environment from lava flows. We found that since the first recorded event between 5494 yr B.P. and 5387 yr B.P., lava flows from at least 155 events have impacted buildings or infrastructure (e.g., roads, electricity pylons, ski-lifts), with most (47%, n = 73) recorded as located in Europe. Over the last century, there have been approximately seven lava flow impact events per decade ( n = 71 total). This greatly expands on the past compilations of lava flow impact events. Since ca. 1800 CE, impacts have been consistently documented for less than 14% of recorded eruptions with lava flows globally; prior to 1800 CE, impacts were recorded much more variably (between 0 and 70% of lava flows in any 10-year time bin). The most destructive recorded events were the 1669 CE lava flows at Etna volcano, Italy, which destroyed up to 12 villages and part of the city of Catania, and the 2002 CE lava flows at Nyiragongo volcano, Democratic Republic of Congo, which destroyed up to 14,000 buildings. We found that few studies in the dataset report building typology, damage severity, or hazard intensity at the building-level scale, limiting our ability to assess past building-lava interactions. Future collection of building-level hazard and impact data, supplemented with non-English language records, can be used to inform models that forecast future impacts, support lava flow risk assessments, and develop potential mitigation measures.

Journal of Applied Volcanology↗
USGS1980

Lithologic log of drill cuttings for DOGAMI heat flow hole CR-SB, Mount Hood, Oregon

CR-SB is one of three shallow (-82.0 m) heat flow holes drilled in 1976 at Mount Hood, Oregon by the Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries (DOGAMI). Drill hole CR-SB was located on the southern flank of the mountain near the Snow Bunny ski lodge at an elevation of 1167.7 m (T 3 S, R 8.5 E, Sec. 25 AA) (Fig. 1). Temperatures, measured at 5.0 m intervals, and geothermal gradient data for the drill hole are given in Hull, Blackwell, and Black (1978) and are reproduced in Table 1 and Figures 2 and 3 in this report. Blackwell and Steele (1979) give an average thermal conductivity, based upon 6 samples of drill cuttings, of 4.53 (standard error =0.26) but indicated that the data obtained from the drill hole are unsuitable for heat flow calculations. Splits of the drill cuttings were obtained courtesy of J. F. Riccio (DOGAMI). The drill cuttings were wet sieved through a 200 mesh (0.074 mm) screen and both fractions were air dried and saved. Representative rock types and alteration material were hand-picked from the coarse fraction using a binocular microscope. Slurry slides of finely-ground cuttings were routinely run at 1/2°/min. from 3° to 37° 20 using unfiltered CuK radiation on a Norelco 1/ X-ray diffractometer equipped with a focusing monochrometer.

Oregon↗
USGS1999

Traveltimes along Clear Creek and selected tributaries upstream from Golden, Colorado, 1996-97

Increased traffic along mountainous stretches of Interstate Highway 70, U.S. Highway 40, and U.S. Highway 6 in Colorado has resulted in a corresponding increase in the movement of hazardous materials. The proximity of Clear Creek and its tributaries to these highways places downstream water users at risk in the event of an accidental hazardous-material release. A traveltime study was performed on two reaches of Clear Creek and two of its tributaries to provide the necessary information to allow downstream water managers to protect water supplies in the event of a hazardous-material release. The information also can be used by hazardous-materialresponse teams to intercept contaminants as they move downstream. This report summarizes the methods and findings of the traveltime study. Traveltime measurements were made using rhodamine-WT dye as a tracer in two reaches of Clear Creek and two Clear Creek tributaries in Clear Creek and Jefferson Counties, Colorado. The reaches were Clear Creek from the town of Berthoud Falls to the city limits of Golden; Clear Creek from the eastern edge of the Loveland Basin Ski Area parking lot to the town of Georgetown; the headwaters of two Clear Creek tributaries near Loveland Pass to the Loveland Valley Ski Area; and two unnamed tributaries of Hoop Creek (a tributary of Clear Creek) near Berthoud Pass to the confluence with the West Fork of Clear Creek. Measurements were made at three times of the year to obtain data from different flow conditions. Traveltime and average velocities were determined for each stream reach. During high flow, dye-cloud leading-edge traveltimes ranged from about 0.6 hour along the Loveland Pass to the Loveland Valley Ski Area drainage to about 8.8 hours between Berthoud Falls and Golden. During low flow, leading-edge traveltimes ranged from about 2.6 hours along the same drainage from Loveland Pass to about 28.6 hours between Berthoud Falls and Golden. Average velocity between the Loveland Pass sites ranged from about 1.3 miles per hour during high flow to about 0.3 mile per hour during low flow. Average velocities between Berthoud Falls and Golden ranged from about 4.4 miles per hour during high flow to about 1.3 miles per hour during low flow. A curve-fitting program was used to fit Lorentz and Gaussian distributions to the data generated from the traveltime measurements. Because discrete (not continuous) traveltime measurements were made, an estimate of the actual time of the leading edge, peak, and trailing edge needed to be determined from the sample data. The curve-fitting program provided the means to calculate the timing of events (leading edge, peak, and trailing edge) that were not precisely measured. Calculated leading-edge, peak, and trailing-edge times were used to generate a series of graphs for each study reach. Traveltime estimation tables were generated from the data for a range of Clear Creek discharges. Because of the high variability of discharge within the basin, the Lawson surface-water gage located near the center of the basin was used as the reference location. Discharge measurements for the Lawson gage are available on the Internet, which can be accessed by most hazardous-material-team dispatchers. Traveltimes determined during the individual studies were plotted against the corresponding discharge at the reference location. A curve-fitting program was used to generate a series of curves, which were used to produce traveltime estimation tables.

Colorado↗
USGS1981

Birds of the St. Croix River valley: Minnesota and Wisconsin

The St. Croix River Valley encompasses nearly 11,550 km2 in east-central Minnesota and northwestern Wisconsin. A wide range of habitats are available for birds including upland oak, lowland deciduous, maple-basswood, lowland and upland coniferous forests, natural basin wetlands, and grasslands. Situated in the north-central region of the United States, the valley is a biological 'crossroads' for many species. Because of the mixed affinities of plant communities, the valley includes the northern and southern range limits for a number of species. Also, because the valley lies near the forest-prairie transition zone, many typical western breeding species (e.g. pintail, western meadowlark, yellow-headed blackbird) breed in proximity to typical eastern species such as tufted titmouse, eastern meadowlark, and cardinal. From 1966 to 1980, I conducted extensive surveys of avian distribution and abundance in the St. Croix River Valley. I have supplemented the results of these surveys with published and unpublished observations contributed by many ornithologists. These additional data include compilations from Christmas Bird Counts sponsored by the National Audubon Society and from the Breeding Bird Survey coordinated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Three hundred fourteen species have been recorded in the study area; data are presented on the migration period, nesting season distribution, winter distribution, relative abundance, and habitat use of each species. Recognizing the uniqueness of the area, and its importance not only to wildlife but also to man, the U.S. Congress designated the St. Croix a National Scenic Riverway. This action provided a considerable degree of protection to lands along and directly adjacent to the river. Unfortunately, no similar legal measure exists to protect lands away from the river. With the exception of the northern quarter of the St. Croix River Valley, agricultural interests have made significant inroads into the habitat base. The continuing expansion of the nearby Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan region has degraded or destroyed many woodlots, upland fields, and wetlands. In numerous instances, degradation of natural habitats has influenced the abundance and distribution of bird species. Because of these changes, both the Federal government and State Departments of Natural Resources have listed several species in various categories based on their current status. In the St. Croix River Valley, seven species are endangered, eight are threatened, and 29 are watch or priority status in either or both states. Data presented in this report are of value to land managers, land use specialists, and ornithologists, in assessing current and projected habitat alterations on the avifauna of this valley. The St. Croix River bisects a large region of western Wisconsin and east central Minnesota that exhibits a wide range of habitat types. This region supports not only birds, but many mammals, fishes, reptiles and amphibians, and several thousand species of vascular and nonvascular plants. The river itself is relatively clean through most of its course, and its natural flow is interrupted by only two small dams. Because the river lies within a 1-day drive of nearly 10 million people (Waters 1977), use of the area for recreational purposes is extremely heavy. Recreational pursuits include sunbathing, boating, and wild river kayaking in the summer, and ice fishing and cross-country skiing in the winter. The large number of unique and highly fragile habitats that exist there may never be compatible with the uses and abuses of the land that go with expanding human populations. Through the efforts of a number of citizens concerned with the quality of their environment and the foresightedness of several local, State, and Federal legislators, a portion of the upper St. Croix River Valley (hereafter termed 'the Valley') was established as a National Wild and Scenic River. Through establishment of t

North American Fauna↗
USGS2003

Explosive-residue compounds resulting from snow avalanche control in the Wasatch Mountains of Utah

A snow avalanche is a powerful force of nature that can play a significant role in developing mountain landscapes (Perla and Martinelli, 1975). More importantly, loss of life can occur when people are caught in the path of snow avalanches (Grossman, 1999). Increasing winter recreation, including skiing, snowboarding, snowmobiling, snowshoeing, and climbing in mountainous areas, has increased the likelihood of people encountering snow avalanches (fig. 1). Explosives are used by most ski areas and State highway departments throughout the Western United States to control the release of snow avalanches, thus minimizing the loss of human life during winter recreation and highway travel (fig. 2). Common explosives used for snow avalanche control include trinitrotoluene (TNT), pentaerythritoltetranitrate (PETN), cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX), tetrytol, ammonium nitrate, and nitroglycerin (Perla and Martinelli, 1975). During and after snowfall or wind loading of potential avalanche slopes, ski patrollers and Utah Department of Transportation personnel deliver explosive charges onto predetermined targets to artificially release snow avalanches, thereby rendering the slope safer for winter activities. Explosives can be thrown by hand onto target zones or shot from cannons for more remote delivery of explosive charges. Hand-delivered charges typically contain about 2 pounds of TNT or its equivalent (Perla and Martinelli, 1975). Depending on the size of the ski area, acreage of potential avalanche terrain, and weather conditions, the annual quantity of explosives used during a season of snow avalanche control can be substantial. For example, the three ski areas of Alta, Snowbird, and Brighton, plus the Utah Department of Transportation, may use as many as 11,200 hand charges per year (Wasatch Powderbird Guides, unpub. data, 1999) for snow avalanche control in Big and Little Cottonwood Canyons (fig. 3). If each charge is assumed to weigh 2 pounds, this equates to about 22,400 pounds of explosive hand charges per year. In addition, 2,240 to 3,160 Avalauncher rounds and 626 to 958 military artillery rounds (explosive mass not specified) are used each year by the three ski areas and the Utah Department of Transportation for snow avalanche control in Big and Little Cottonwood Canyons (Wasatch Powderbird Guides, unpub. data, 1999). The other ski area in Big Cottonwood Canyon, Brighton, uses about 2,000 pounds of explosives per year for snow avalanche control (Michele Weidner, Cirrus Ecological Solutions consultant, written commun., 2001).

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗
USGS2017

Groundwater resources of the Devils Postpile National Monument—Current conditions and future vulnerabilities

This study presents an extensive database on groundwater conditions in and around Devils Postpile National Monument. The database contains chemical analyses of springs and the monument water-supply well, including major-ion chemistry, trace element chemistry, and the first information on a list of organic compounds known as emerging contaminants. Diurnal, seasonal, and annual variations in groundwater discharge and chemistry are evaluated from data collected at five main monitoring sites, where streams carry the aggregate flow from entire groups of springs. These springs drain the Mammoth Mountain area and, during the fall months, contribute a significant fraction of the San Joaquin River flow within the monument. The period of this study, from fall 2012 to fall 2015, includes some of the driest years on record, though the seasonal variability observed in 2013 might have been near normal. The spring-fed streams generally flowed at rates well below those observed during a sequence of wet years in the late 1990s. However, persistence of flow and reasonably stable water chemistry through the recent dry years are indicative of a sizeable groundwater system that should provide a reliable resource during similar droughts in the future. Only a few emerging contaminants were detected at trace levels below 1 microgram per liter (μg/L), suggesting that local human visitation is not degrading groundwater quality. No indication of salt from the ski area on the north side of Mammoth Mountain could be found in any of the groundwaters. Chemical data instead show that natural mineral water, such as that discharged from local soda springs, is the main source of anomalous chloride in the monument supply well and in the San Joaquin River. The results of the study are used to develop a set of recommendations for future monitoring to enable detection of deleterious impacts to groundwater quality and quantity

California↗
USGS1996

Slope stability of proposed ski facilities at the southeast side of Snodgrass Mountain, Gunnison County, Colorado

Part of the proposed expansion of ski facilities at Crested Butte Mountain Resort, Gunnison County, Colorado, is in an area underlain by landslide deposits that are on the southeast side of Snodgrass Mountain. Except for localized movement, the landslides do not appear to be moving at present or to have moved in the past several decades. Shallow sliding and debris flows have occurred in similar materials nearby and are likely to occur in the landslide deposits during the 50-100 year life of the proposed facilities. Hazards related to debris flow, shallow slumping, and expansive soils in the deposits can be reduced by appropriate engineering and remedial measures but maintenance for the proposed facility may become costly. Snow making is likely to aggravate the hazards of shallow slumping, deep-seated sliding, and debris flow. Reactivation and deep-seated movement of a 1.6-million-m3 slide at the east side of the deposits would damage or destroy a proposed gondola, ski lift N-3, and related facilities. Moving the gondola and lift off the slide and prohibiting snow making on the slide will protect the gondola and lift and reduce the chances of debris-flow damage to a proposed development near the toe of the slide. Insufficient data are available to assess the current or future stability of the landslides or to evaluate possible mitigation strategies; detailed stability analyses are needed before developing any facilities on the landslide deposits.

Open-File Report↗
USGS2022

Wyoming and Landsat

Wyoming has the smallest population of any State—fewer than 600,000 people—but an abun­dance of wildlife. The largest number of pronghorn ( Antilocapra americana ), often called antelope, and the biggest public bison ( Bison bison ) herd in the United States live in Wyoming, which also hosts elk ( Cervus elaphus ), moose ( Alces americanus ), bighorn sheep ( Ovis canadensis ), black bears ( Ursus americanus ), and grizzly bears ( U. arctos ). The terrain of the Nation’s 10th largest State varies from the Black Hills to the Rocky Mountains, and from Great Plains grassland to Wyoming Basin desert sagebrush. Natural resources attract millions of visitors annually, especially to the country’s first national park, Yellowstone, and the ski slopes in Grand Teton National Park and elsewhere. Natural resources account for much of the employment in the Cowboy State, from tourism and ranching to coal, natural gas, and oil mining. To help monitor these natural resources, researchers and land managers have relied on USGS Landsat imagery and data. The scale of images from the first Landsat satellites helped geologists detect previously unknown uranium deposits in Wyoming, which is the leading State for uranium production. Today, land managers and researchers take advantage of Landsat and its 50-year archive to explore landscape change over time—and continue to make new discoveries.

Wyoming↗
USGS2020

Managing state lands for wildlife

State-owned lands are a vital component of state fish and wildlife management programs because they contain valuable habitats for a diversity of wild species and often provide important public access. The Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies (AFWA 2017) reported state agencies manage or administer approximately 188 million hectares of land, including 10 million hectares under fee title ownership with the remainder of those lands leased or licensed in conservation agreements, grazing allotments, or rights-of-ways. State agencies commonly strive to enhance wildlife habitats within their purview, but have also improved areas not directly owned by them. In total, an estimated 22,953,364 additional hectares have been improved by state fish and wildlife agencies through private landowner agreements (AFWA 2017). States also own 192,000 individual water rights and have developed at least 53,000 formal partnership agreements to conserve wildlife. Today, there are a plethora of state land categories including wildlife refuges, wildlife management areas, state forests, parks and trails, state trust lands, research and natural areas, and public fishing areas. Acquisition and/or leasing of properties to provide access for fishing and hunting are often vitally important in meeting local constituents’ desires for consumptive uses of their natural resources. However, state agencies also provide areas for forest conservation, boating, camping, hiking, rock hounding, skiing, wildlife viewing, and other nonconsumptive recreational pursuits. Lastly, states often acquire properties primarily for wildlife habitat management/conservation or to preserve areas of cultural and historic value to their citizens.

Book chapter↗
USGS2016

Depth calibration of the Experimental Advanced Airborne Research Lidar, EAARL-B

Introduction The original National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Experimental Advanced Airborne Research Lidar (EAARL) was extensively modified to increase the spatial sampling density and to improve performance in water ranging from 3 to 44 meters (m). The new (EAARL-B) sensor features a higher spatial density that was achieved by optically splitting each laser pulse into three pulses spatially separated by 1.6 m along the flight track and 2.0 m across the flight track, on the water surface when flown at a nominal altitude of 300 m (984 feet). The sample spacing can be optionally increased to 1.0 m across the flight track. Improved depth capability was achieved by increasing the total peak laser power by a factor of 10 and by designing a new “deep-water” receiver, which is optimized to exclusively receive refracted and scattered light from deeper water (15–44 m). Two different clear-water flight missions were conducted over the U.S. Navy's South Florida Testing Facility (SFTF) to determine the EAARL-B calibration coefficients. The SFTF is an established lidar calibration range located in the coastal waters southeast of Fort Lauderdale, Florida. We used 23 selected polygons at 23 distinct depths to compare a reference dataset from this site to determine EAARL-B calibration constants over the depth range of 6.5 to 34 m. We also conducted a near-simultaneous single-beam jet-ski-based sonar survey of selected transects ranging from 1 to 33 m depth in the same area. The near-concurrent jet ski data were used to evaluate the EAARL-B performance over the depth range from 0.9 to 10 m. The more timely jet ski data were necessary because the primary reference dataset was 9 years old, and areas shallower than 6.5 m are dominated by shifting sand. We determined the jet ski data were not useful as a calibration reference in water deeper than 10 m due to large uncertainty in the vertical measurement introduced by the lack of any sensor orientation data, that is, for pitch, roll, and heading to correct the measured slant range to a vertical measurement. The resulting calibrated EAARL-B data were then analyzed and compared with the original reference dataset, the jet-ski-based dataset from the same Fort Lauderdale site, as well as the depth-accuracy requirements of the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO). We do not claim to meet all of the IHO requirements and standards. The IHO minimum depth-accuracy requirements were used as a reference only and we do not address the other IHO requirements such as “ Full Seafloor Search”. Our results show good agreement between the calibrated EAARL-B data and all reference datasets, with results that are within the 95 percent depth accuracy of the IHO Order 1 (a and b) depth-accuracy requirements.

Open-File Report↗
USGS2010

Estimated water withdrawals and return flows in Vermont in 2005 and 2020

In 2005, about 12 percent of total water withdrawals (440 million gallons per day (Mgal/d)) in Vermont were from groundwater sources (51 Mgal/d), and about 88 percent were from surface-water sources (389 Mgal/d). Of total water withdrawals, about 78 percent were used for cooling at a power plant, 9 percent were withdrawn by public suppliers, about 5 percent were withdrawn for domestic use, about 3 percent were withdrawn for use at fish hatcheries, and the remaining 5 percent were divided among commercial/industrial, irrigation, livestock, and snowmaking uses. About 49 percent of the population of Vermont was supplied with drinking water by a public supplier, and 51 percent was self supplied. Some of the Minor Civil Divisions (MCDs) that had large self-supplied populations were located near the major cities of St. Albans, Burlington, Montpelier, Barre, and Rutland, where the cities themselves were served largely by public supply, but the surrounding areas were not. Most MCDs where withdrawals by community water systems totaled more than 1 Mgal/d used predominantly surface water, and those where withdrawals by community water systems totaled 1 Mgal/d or less used predominantly groundwater. Withdrawals of groundwater greater than 1 Mgal/d were made in Middlebury, Bethel, Hartford, Springfield, and Bennington, and withdrawals of surface water greater than 2 Mgal/d were made in Grand Isle, Burlington, South Burlington, Mendon, Brattleboro, and Vernon. Increases in groundwater withdrawals greater than 0.1 Mgal/d are projected for 2020 for Fairfax, Hardwick, Middlebury, Sharon, Proctor, Springfield, and Manchester. The largest projected increases in surface-water withdrawals from 2005 to 2020 are located along the center axis of the Green Mountains in the ski-area towns of Stowe, Warren, Mendon, Killington, and Wilmington. In 2005, withdrawals were at least 1 Mgal/d greater than return flows in South Burlington, Waterford, Orange, Mendon, Woodford, and Vernon. Many of these MCDs had small populations themselves but provided water to community water systems in neighboring towns or cities. Wilmington probably will be added to this list by 2020 because of proposed new withdrawals for snowmaking in Dover. About 15 percent of MCDs had greater return flows than withdrawals; possible reasons are water importation, larger service areas for municipal sewer than for municipal water resulting in underestimation of withdrawals, leakage into sewer pipes, faulty assumptions in assigning coefficients, or other limitations of the study methods. To store and facilitate retrieval of water-use estimates and data for 2005 and projections for 2020, a water-use database for Vermont was designed and populated. Data include withdrawals and return flows from and to groundwater and surface water for all individual facilities and entities that are in Vermont drinking water, discharge permit, or other State water-use databases, along with estimates for many other facilities. Also included are estimates for aggregated domestic and livestock withdrawals and return flows by census block. Retrievals from the database and summaries presented in this report can be used to help identify areas where projected growth in Vermont from 2005 to 2020 might affect groundwater availability.

Scientific Investigations Report↗
USGS2022

Utah and Landsat

Utah’s list of notable features runs long, but scenery rises to the top. The Colorado River does not simply run through southeastern Utah; it meanders through steep canyons of the eroded sedimentary rock that colors the sweeping vistas of the Colorado Plateau. Stone arches, spires, hoodoos, cliffs, and bridges in hues of red enchant residents and tourists. Mountain ranges extending through the State add dynamic views—and skiing opportunities. The Great Salt Lake in northern Utah is the largest saltwater lake in the Western Hemisphere. The western part of Utah, including the Great Salt Lake, lies in the Great Basin, a multi-State drainage area with no outlet. Because the lake has no outlet to flush out any salt, evaporation produces a higher concentration of salts in the water or soils, called salinity. The lake lacks fish but supports algae and brine shrimp, and extensive wetlands around the lake attract millions of migratory birds. Landsat imagery is useful for showing surface changes, such as the fluctuating water levels of the shallow Great Salt Lake. The lake flooded in the 1980s, but the southern part dropped to its lowest level in recorded history in 2021. Landsat data also can take a much deeper look at land and water conditions. Here are several ways Landsat benefits Utah.

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