Recent advances in scientific knowledge and developments pertaining to diseases of fishes
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Advances in Veterinary Science and Comparative Med↗
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Effects of housing density and cage floor space on C57BL/6J mice
The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (the Guide) is widely accepted as the housing standard by most Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees. The recommendations are based on best professional judgment rather than experimental data. Current efforts are directed toward replacing these guidelines with data-driven, species-appropriate standards. Our studies were undertaken to determine the optimum housing density for C57BL/6J mice, the most commonly used inbred mouse strain. Four-week-old mice were housed for 8 weeks at four densities (the recommended ???12 in2 [ca. 77.4 cm 2]/mouse down to 5.6 in2 [ca. 36.1 cm2]/mouse) in three cage types with various amounts of floor space. Housing density did not affect a variety of physiologic parameters but did affect certain micro-environmental parameters, although these remained within accepted ranges. A second study was undertaken housing C57BL/6J mice with as little as 3.2 in2/mouse (ca. 20.6 cm2). The major effect was elevated ammonia concentrations that exceeded limits acceptable in the workplace at increased housing densities; however, the nasal passages and eyeballs of the mice remained microscopically normal. On the basis of these results, we conclude that C57BL/6J mice as large as 29 g may be housed with 5.6 in2 of floor space per mouse. This area is approximately half the floor space recommended in the Guide. The role of the Guide is to ensure that laboratory animals are well treated and housed in a species-appropriate manner. Our data suggest that current policies could be altered in order to provide the optimal habitation conditions matched to this species' social needs. Copyright 2004 by the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science.
Comparative Medicine↗
Susceptibility of zebrafish (Danio rerio) to a model pathogen, spring viremia of carp virus
To improve our understanding of the genetic basis of fish disease, we developed a pathogen model, using zebrafish ( Danio rerio ) and spring virema of carp virus (SVCV). Replicate groups of 10 fish were acclimated to 20 or 24°C, then were exposed to SVCV concentrations of 10 3 to 10 5 plaque-forming units per milliliter (PFU/ml) of water and observed daily. In a second trial, fish were acclimated to 15°C, and replicate groups of 10 fish were exposed to SVCV at a concentration of 10 5 PFU/ml; however, the temperature was raised 1°C/wk. Moribund fish were collected for histologic examination, and dead fish were assayed for virus by use of cell culture and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis. Mortality exceeded 50% in fish exposed to 10 5 PFU of SVCV/ml at the lower temperatures. Clinical signs of disease became evident seven days after viral exposure and were observed most consistently in fish of the 10 5 PFU/ml groups. Affected zebrafish were anorectic and listless, with epidermal petechial hemorrhages followed by death. Use of plaque assays and RT-PCR analysis confirmed presence of SVCV at titers ≥ 10 4 PFU/g of tissue. Histologic lesions included multifocal brachial necrosis and melanomacrophage proliferation in gills, liver, and kidneys. These results indicate that zebrafish are susceptible to infection by SVCV under conditions that mimic a natural route of exposure.
Comparative Medicine↗
Proterozoic geology of the Granite Village area, Albany and Laramie counties, Wyoming, compared with that of the Sierra Madre and Medicine Bow mountains of southeastern Wyoming
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Bulletin↗
Comparing surgery time and short-term incision healing for Largemouth Bass using smooth- and barbed-absorbable sutures
Objective Barbed sutures have become increasingly favored over traditional smooth sutures in human medicine but remain understudied in fisheries biotelemetry applications. Our objectives were to (1) compare surgery time and recovery time for Largemouth Bass Micropterus nigricans when using smooth- versus barbed-absorbable sutures to close the incisions and (2) compare the short-term healing rates of incisions that were closed with the two sutures. Methods We conducted a surgical trial using two incision closure methods: a smooth suture method, which used three interrupted sutures, and a barbed suture method, which used a running style suture. Surgery and surgical recovery times were recorded for each surgery. At 14 d postsurgery, each incision was scored for openness and inflammation. Results Barbed sutures (median surgery time = 133.5 s) resulted in higher surgical efficiency than smooth sutures (median surgery time = 255.0 s). Surgical recovery time did not differ between the two suture types. Mortality did not differ between suture types (overall mortality = 21%) and was similar to previously reported mortality rates. Incision site inflammation and openness were variable but did not differ between suture types. Conclusions Our results indicate that barbed sutures may increase surgical efficiency while maintaining currently observed survival and healing rates for Largemouth Bass.
North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗
Comparison of community practitioner and clinical educator expectations of veterinary graduates
One goal of veterinary curricular development and revision is to ensure graduating veterinarians meet entry-level competencies to perform successfully in their community. Most curricula are developed by clinical educators in a university setting; therefore, we must determine whether clinical educators can predict community practitioner expectations. This article evaluates practitioners’ expectations of new graduate independence in veterinary tasks and compares these expectations with those of clinical educators at the University of Wisconsin—Madison School of Veterinary Medicine (UW-SVM). A survey was designed to measure expectations of graduate-level independence within nine technical and three non-technical categories. Members of the Wisconsin Veterinary Medical Association (WVMA) and UW-SVM clinicians were invited to participate. Expected levels of independence were compared between these two populations and between WVMA specialists and generalists. Results indicated significant differences in the expected levels of graduate independence between UW-SVM clinicians and WVMA members, with UW-SVM clinicians generally expecting higher levels of independence for both technical and non-technical tasks. Although most SVM clinicians are specialists, this difference does not appear to reflect a difference in expectations between specialists and generalists, as WVMA specialists had lower expectations of graduate independence for most technical and non-technical tasks than did WVMA generalists. These results suggest that academic clinicians are not able to predict practitioners’ graduate expectations or that graduates in practice are not meeting the levels of independence expected by their clinical educators. Further investigation into the differences in expectations will enable fruitful partnerships between academic clinicians, practitioners, and students in curricular design and revision.
Journal of Veterinary Medical Education↗
What makes a natural clay antibacterial?
Natural clays have been used in ancient and modern medicine, but the mechanism(s) that make certain clays lethal against bacterial pathogens has not been identified. We have compared the depositional environments, mineralogies, and chemistries of clays that exhibit antibacterial effects on a broad spectrum of human pathogens including antibiotic resistant strains. Natural antibacterial clays contain nanoscale (<200 nm), illite-smectite and reduced iron phases. The role of clay minerals in the bactericidal process is to buffer the aqueous pH and oxidation state to conditions that promote Fe 2+ solubility. Chemical analyses of E. coli killed by aqueous leachates of an antibacterial clay show that intracellular concentrations of Fe and P are elevated relative to controls. Phosphorus uptake by the cells supports a regulatory role of polyphosphate or phospholipids in controlling Fe 2+ . Fenton reaction products can degrade critical cell components, but we deduce that extracellular processes do not cause cell death. Rather, Fe 2+ overwhelms outer membrane regulatory proteins and is oxidized when it enters the cell, precipitating Fe 3+ and producing lethal hydroxyl radicals.
Environmental Science & Technology↗
An introduction to standardized sampling
It was probably one of the oddest riots in the history of the United States. In Erie, Pennsylvania during 1853. federal marshals were called to restore order during bloody uprisings. A mob of women, equipped with sledgehammers, was tearing up railroad rack to protest standardization of track width (Nesmith 1985). All across the United States, standardization of rail gauges was talking place to improve transportation across the country,but many people did not want consistency. Jobs moving freight from, a train running on one gauge of track to a train running on another gauge were plentiful at this time, and standardization would mean these jobs would disappear. Fortunately, for us today, the riots were quelled and standardization of railroad tack gauges went ahead. The magnificent transportation system of North America was aided by the standardization of rails, contributing to robust economies. Standardization of industrial processes, languages, measurements, and data collection methods has been essential for world progress (Figure 1.1). Today , we are often unaware of the degree of standardization of the most basic elements of our society--from bolts and nuts where thread sizes are standard to computer components that can be used interchangeably to the standard sizes of photos we carry in our wallets or purses. Data collection and presentation are standardized in many disciplines, including medicine, meteorology, geology, and water chemistry. For example, our cholesterol, body temperature, and blood pressure are measured by standard medical tests and compared to averages calculated from the results of the same standard tests for many other people to determine if individuals are higher, lower, or average compared to the population in general. If these diagnostic tests were not standardized, it is unlikely that we would be able to evaluate eve the most basic data about our health. In fact, if standardization was not used in countless other facets of our society our lives would be much more difficult. For data collection purposes, standardization means to collect data in one way so comparisons can be easily made. Although routine data collection has been standardized in many other disciplines, data from freshwater fish sampling across North America have not. Previously, most data collection has been standardized only at local, state, and provincial levels (Bonar and Hubert 2002). Several years ago, when one of the authors (Bonar) was a biologist for a state agency, he was asked to compile as much data as he could about the state's warmwater fish communities to provide information to managers developing fishing regulations. These data had been collected by many biologists over time using different methods, including rotenone, electrofishing, gill netting, and hook-and-line sampling. Data were written carefully on detailed data sheets or in scribbled notes in a biologists's notebook. As you can imagine, these data were a nightmare to compile. However, they were even worse to interpret. How could length-frequency distributions be compared among lakes if the methods used to catch the fish were dissimilar with differing efficiencies in sampling fish of various species and lengths? How could catch per unit effort (CPUE), a common index of population density, be compared when samples were collected one year using fyke nets and the next year by electrofishing? Ultimately, how could one compare if fish population were high, low, or average in growth, body condition, or abundance if there was no compilation of distributions of standard data to facilitate comparison? Months were spent trying to interpret these data, and finally a body of comparable data gathered by similar methods was assimilated. However, much of the nonstandard data had to be discarded--data that had taken thousands of hours to collect but were essentially useless. If all data jhad been collected and recorded in a standard manner, whoch would have required very little extra work, all of these hours of survey effort would not have gone to naught and isights regardimng the fisheries would have been imporived by a larger number of samples.
Book chapter↗
Fate and seasonality of antimicrobial resistance genes during full-scale anaerobic digestion of cattle manure across seven livestock production facilities
Anaerobic digestion has been suggested as an intervention to attenuate antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in livestock manure but supporting data have typically been collected at laboratory scale. Few studies have quantified ARG fate during full-scale digestion of livestock manure. We sampled untreated manure and digestate from seven full-scale mesophilic dairy manure digesters to assess ARG fate through each system. Samples were collected biweekly from December through August (i.e., winter, spring, and summer; n = 235 total) and analyzed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction for intI1 , erm (B), sul1 , tet (A), and tet (W). Concentrations of intI1 , sul1 , and tet (A) decreased during anaerobic digestion, but their removal was less extensive than expected based on previous laboratory studies. Removal for intI1 during anaerobic digestion equaled 0.28 ± 0.03 log 10 units (mean ± SE), equivalent to only 48% removal and notable given intI1 ’s role in horizontal gene transfer and multiple resistance. Furthermore, tet (W) concentrations were unchanged during anaerobic digestion ( p > 0.05), and erm (B) concentrations increased by 0.52 ± 0.03 log 10 units (3.3-fold), which is important given erythromycin's status as a critically important antibiotic for human medicine. Seasonal log 10 changes in intI1 , sul1 , and tet (A) concentrations were ≥50% of corresponding log 10 removals by anaerobic digestion, and variation in ARG and intI1 concentrations among digesters was quantitatively comparable to anaerobic digestion effects. These results suggest that mesophilic anaerobic digestion may be limited as an intervention for ARGs in livestock manure and emphasize the need for multiple farm-level interventions to attenuate antibiotic resistance.
Journal of Environmental Quality↗
Weights, hematology and serum chemistry of free-ranging brown boobies (Sula leucogaster) in Johnston Atoll, Central Pacific
Hematologic and serum chemistry values are reported for 105 brown boobies (Sula leucogaster) from Johnston Atoll, Central Pacific. Hematocrit, estimated total plasma solids, total and differential white cell counts, serum glucose, calcium, phosphorus, uric acid, total protein, albumin, globulin, aspartate aminotransferase, and creatinine phosphokinase were analyzed. Hematologic and serum chemistry values varied with age and sex. Values were compared with those of red-footed boobies and other tropical and temperate marine pelecaniforms.
Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge↗
Parsing demographic effects of canine parvovirus on a Minnesota wolf population
We examined 35 years of relationships among wolf ( Canis lupus ) pup survival, population change and canine parvovirus (CPV) seroprevalence in Northeastern Minnesota to determine when CPV exerted its strongest effects. Using correlation analysis of data from five periods of 7-years each from 1973 through 2007, we learned that the strongest effect of CPV on pup survival ( r = -0.73) and on wolf population change ( r = -0.92) was during 1987 to 1993. After that, little effect was documented despite a mean CPV seroprevalence from 1994 of 2007 of 70.8% compared with 52.6% during 1987 to 1993. We conclude that after CPV became endemic and produced its peak effect on the study population, that population developed enough immunity to withstand the disease.
Minnesota↗
Plasma biochemistry values in emperor geese (Chen canagica) in Alaska: Comparisons among age, sex, incubation, and molt
Reduced populations of emperor geese ( Chen canagica ), a Bering Sea endemic, provided the need to assess plasma biochemistry values as indicators of population health. A precursory step to such an investigation was to evaluate patterns of variability in plasma biochemistry values among age, sex, and reproductive period. Plasma from 63 emperor geese was collected on their breeding grounds on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta in western Alaska, USA. The geese sampled included 18 incubating adult females captured, in mid June, on their nests by using bow nets, and 30 adults and 15 goslings captured in corral traps in late July and early August, when the adults were molting their wing feathers and the goslings were 5–6 weeks old. Plasma was evaluated for 15 biochemical parameters, by comparing results among age, sex, and sampling period (incubation versus wing-feather molt). Ten of the 15 biochemical parameters assayed differed among adults during incubation, the adults during molt, and the goslings at molt, whereas sex differences were noted in few parameters.
Alaska↗
Characterization of West Nile viruses isolated form captive American flamingoes ( Phoenicopterus ruber ) in Medellin, Colombia.
Serum samples from a total of 71 healthy captive birds belonging to 18 species were collected in July of 2008 in Medellin (Colombia) and tested for flaviviruses. Eighteen of 29 samples from American Flamingoes (Phoenicopterus ruber) were positive for West Nile virus (WNV) by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Selected positive samples were serially passaged and WNV was confirmed by immunofluorescence. Two isolates (524/08, 9835/08) were characterized in vitro and in vivo. Sequence analysis revealed WNV with 16 nucleotide substitutions resulting in six amino acid changes when compared with the NY99 strain. Colombian (COL) viruses were more closely related to Louisiana isolates from 2001. When compared with attenuated strains isolated from Texas, COL isolates differed in their plaque size and temperature sensitivity phenotype. The COL viruses were pathogenic in embryonated chicken eggs and Balb/c mice.
Medellin↗
Volcano Hazards Assessment for Medicine Lake Volcano, Northern California
Medicine Lake volcano (MLV) is a very large shield-shaped volcano located in northern California where it forms part of the southern Cascade Range of volcanoes. It has erupted hundreds of times during its half-million-year history, including nine times during the past 5,200 years, most recently 950 years ago. This record represents one of the highest eruptive frequencies among Cascade volcanoes and includes a wide variety of different types of lava flows and at least two explosive eruptions that produced widespread fallout. Compared to those of a typical Cascade stratovolcano, eruptive vents at MLV are widely distributed, extending 55 km north-south and 40 km east-west. The total area covered by MLV lavas is >2,000 km2, about 10 times the area of Mount St. Helens, Washington. Judging from its long eruptive history and its frequent eruptions in recent geologic time, MLV will erupt again. Although the probability of an eruption is very small in the next year (one chance in 3,600), the consequences of some types of possible eruptions could be severe. Furthermore, the documented episodic behavior of the volcano indicates that once it becomes active, the volcano could continue to erupt for decades, or even erupt intermittently for centuries, and very likely from multiple vents scattered across the edifice. Owing to its frequent eruptions, explosive nature, and proximity to regional infrastructure, MLV has been designated a 'high threat volcano' by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) National Volcano Early Warning System assessment. Volcanic eruptions are typically preceded by seismic activity, but with only two seismometers located high on the volcano and no other USGS monitoring equipment in place, MLV is at present among the most poorly monitored Cascade volcanoes.
Scientific Investigations Report↗
Surveillance potential of non-native Hawaiian birds for detection of West Nile Virus
West Nile virus (WNV) was first detected in North America in 1999. Alaska and Hawaii (HI) remain the only U.S. states in which transmission of WNV has not been detected. Dead bird surveillance has played an important role in the detection of the virus geographically, as well as temporally. In North America, corvids have played a major role in WNV surveillance; however, the only corvid in HI is the endangered Hawaiian crow that exists only in captivity, thus precluding the use of this species for WNV surveillance in HI. To evaluate the suitability of alternate avian species for WNV surveillance, we experimentally challenged seven abundant non-native bird species present in HI with WNV and compared mortality, viremia, oral shedding of virus, and seroconversion. For detection of WNV in oral swabs, we compared viral culture, reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, and the RAMP ® test. For detection of antibodies to WNV, we compared an indirect and a competitive enzyme-linked immunoassay. We found four species (house sparrow, house finch, Japanese white-eye, and Java sparrow) that may be useful in dead bird surveillance for WNV; while common myna, zebra dove, and spotted dove survived infection and may be useful in serosurveillance.
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene↗
Studies of certain sulfonamide drugs for use in juvenile chinook salmon
Sulfamethazine, introduced to fishery medicine by Snieszko and Friddle in 1950, has been widely accepted for treatment of systemic bacterial infections of fish. When administered to fish in their diet, this drug is effective against susceptible bacteria but has the disadvantages of being slowly absorbed (Snieszko and Friddle, 1951) and relatively toxic (Wood, Yasutake, and Johnson, 1957). Today there are many sulfonamides which are more efficacious than sulfamethazine. In domestic animals, sulfisoxazole and sulfadimethoine are absorbed quickly from the gastrointestinal tract and have fewer toxic side reactions, a wider antibacterial spectrum, and better bacteriostatic activity. In the work described in this paper, the efficacies of sulfisoxazole and sulfadimethoxine were compared to the efficacy of sulfamethazine. Experiments were designed to determine the rate of intestinal absorption, the rate of elimination from the blood, the effect on growth, and the toxicity of each drug in juvenile chinook salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ). The comparative bacteriostatic activity against two common fish pathogens was also determined for each drug.
Progressive Fish-Culturist↗
Pathogenicity of West Nile virus and response to vaccination in sandhill cranes ( Grus canadensis ) using a killed vaccine
West Nile virus was introduced into the United States in the vicinity of New York, New York, USA in 1999. The virus has since killed large numbers of birds nationwide, especially, but not limited to, crows ( Corvus brachyrhinchos ). One sandhill crane ( Grus canadensis ) at the Bridgeport Zoo (Bridgeport, Connecticut, USA) reportedly died from West Nile virus, so sandhill cranes and endangered whooping cranes ( Grus americana ), both in the wild and in captive breeding colonies at United States Geological Service (USGS) Patuxent Wildlife Research Center (Laurel, Maryland, USA) were considered at risk. A killed vaccine in sandhill cranes was evaluated by vaccinating and then challenging these cranes with live West Nile virus. No sandhill cranes inoculated with the killed vaccine developed significant titers when compared with unvaccinated controls. No sandhill cranes inoculated with the vaccine and challenged with the virus died from West Nile virus infection. In addition, no unvaccinated challenged sandhill cranes died. However, 2 days postchallenge, vaccinated cranes had significantly less viremia (P < 0.05) than unvaccinated cranes. Seven days postchallenge vaccinated cranes had significantly less cloacal shedding of the virus (P < 0.05) than unvaccinated cranes and significantly less weight loss (P < 0.05) as compared with unvaccinated cranes. Vaccinated sandhill cranes developed significantly higher titers 14 days postchallenge and were viremic for shorter periods of time after challenge than unvaccinated individuals. Unvaccinated challenged cranes had glial cell aggregates in both the brain and brain stem areas, and this was not observed in vaccinated challenged cranes or in vaccinated unchallenged cranes.
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine↗
Circulating fat-soluble vitamin concentrations and nutrient composition of aquatic prey eaten by American oystercatchers ( Haematopus palliatus ) in the southeastern United States
The American oystercatcher ( Haematopus palliatus palliatus ) is currently listed as a species of high concern by the United States Shorebird Conservation Plan. Because nutritional status directly impacts overall health and reproduction of individuals and populations, adequate management of a wildlife population requires intimate knowledge of a species' diet and nutrient requirements. Fat-soluble vitamin concentrations in blood plasma obtained from American oystercatchers and proximate, vitamin, and mineral composition of various oystercatcher prey species were determined as baseline data to assess nutritional status and nutrient supply. Bird and prey species samples were collected from the Cape Romain region, South Carolina, USA, and the Altamaha River delta islands, Georgia, USA, where breeding populations appear relatively stable in recent years. Vitamin A levels in blood samples were higher than ranges reported as normal for domestic avian species, and vitamin D concentrations were lower than anticipated based on values observed in poultry. Vitamin E levels were within ranges previously reported for avian groups with broadly similar feeding niches such as herons, gulls, and terns (eg, aquatic/estuarine/marine). Prey species (oysters, mussels, clams, blood arks [ Anadara ovalis ], whelks [ Busycon carica ], false angel wings [ Petricola pholadiformis ]) were similar in water content to vertebrate prey, moderate to high in protein, and moderate to low in crude fat. Ash and macronutrient concentrations in prey species were high compared with requirements of carnivores or avian species. Prey items analyzed appear to meet nutritional requirements for oystercatchers, as estimated by extrapolation from domestic carnivores and poultry species; excesses, imbalances, and toxicities—particularly of minerals and fat-soluble vitamins—may warrant further investigation.
Georgia, South Carolina↗