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Questions of gender in cartography most often focus on the sex of people involved in the cartographic process. These areas of research include the history of women cartographers (Tyner 1997: 46; Ritzlin 1989: 5; Hudson 1989: 29), the cartography of issues centered on women (Seager and Olson 1986; Seager et al. 1997; Rocheleau et al. 1995: 62), and women in the cartographic labor force (McHaffie 1996). Such studies examine the experiences of men and women in map-making, but not the map itself. When studies have addressed gender and contemporary map design qualities, the focus has been on cognitive aspects of and potential differences between the sexes in the cartographic process of making, analyzing, or reading maps (Golledge and Gilmartin 1986; Gilmartin and Patton 1984). Such studies tend to polarize the experience of gender in cartography as either male or female, when in fact people display properties of both genders. This paper examines facets of the historical basis of contemporary cartographic design principles, especially where these principles are gendered. By examining gender as social constructions of femininity and masculinity and how they have been incorporated into mapping, instead of as the interaction of individuals with maps (although sexual stereotypes act predominantly on individuals on the basis of their sex), we more closely approach the complex array of skills and relationships within which people live, while gaining insight into the stereotypical experiences of individuals. The premise is that early modern map design was not gender neutral in terms of broader social forces shaping gender identity. Historical evidence suggests that modern cartographic design principles originated along the lines of ideals of masculinity.
An assessment of the current status of computer-assisted cartography, in part, is biased by one's view of the cartographic process as a whole. From a traditional viewpoint we are concerned about automating the mapping process; from a progressive viewpoint we are concerned about using the tools of computer science to convey spatial information. On the surface these viewpoints appear to be in opposition. However, it is postulated that in the final analysis, they face the same goal. This overview uses the perspectives from two viewpoints to depict the current state of computer-assisted cartography and speculate on future goals, trends, and challenges.-Authors
This catalog illustrates the 1:5,000,000 series of Mars base maps being compiled as part of the Mariner 9 scientific data reduction effort. This effort is sponsored by four different Centers within the National Aeronautics and Space Administration: 1) The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 2) The Langley Research Center, 3) NASA Headquarters, and 4) The Planetology Programs Office at NASA Headquarters. The catalog will be updated periodically as new materials become available, and will eventually be expanded to include cartographic products at scales of 1:1, 000, 000 and 1:250,000. Detailed discussions of the many aspects of Mars cartography are given in papers listed in the bibliography. Only brief notes are given here to aid the reader's understanding of existing products. Data returned by Mariner 9 spacecraft permit detailed mapping of landforms with dimensions as small as 1 to 3 km over the entire surface of Mars. A few special areas can be mapped to show landforms with dimensions as small as 100 m. Prior to the use of spacecraft television, telescopic views of the planet resolved only light and dark markings having dimensions greater than 100 km. Topographic features as such have not been identified telescopically. It was not until the flights of Mariners 4, 6, and 7 that Martian surface topography was revealed. High resolution pictures taken by these spacecraft covered only 20% of theplanet. By chance, the areas photographed by these spacecraftconsisted mostly of cratered terrain and no data were obtained thatsuggested the presence of the spectacular volcanoes and canyonsrevealed by the first time by Mariner 9. Mariner 9 covered at least 70% of the surface of Mars with pictures resolving features 1 to 2 km in size and the remainder with pictures resolving features about 3 km in size. These pictures, therefore, are now the definitive sources of data for the cartography of Mars and, because of their completeness, are not likely to be surpassed in this decade or perhaps this century.
Digital cartography allows the portrayal of spatial associations among diverse data types and is ideally suited for land use and resource analysis. We have developed methodology that uses digital cartography for the classification of wetlands and their associated peat resources and applied it to a 1:24 000 scale map area in New Hampshire. Classifying and mapping wetlands involves integrating the spatial distribution of wetlands types with depth variations in associated peat quality and character. A hierarchically structured classification that integrates the spatial distribution of variations in (1) vegetation, (2) soil type, (3) hydrology, (4) geologic aspects, and (5) peat characteristics has been developed and can be used to build digital cartographic files for resource and land use analysis. The first three parameters are the bases used by the National Wetlands Inventory to classify wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. The fourth parameter, geological aspects, includes slope, relief, depth of wetland (from surface to underlying rock or substrate), wetland stratigraphy, and the type and structure of solid and unconsolidated rock surrounding and underlying the wetland. The fifth parameter, peat characteristics, includes the subsurface variation in ash, acidity, moisture, heating value (Btu), sulfur content, and other chemical properties as shown in specimens obtained from core holes. These parameters can be shown as a series of map data overlays with tables that can be integrated for resource or land use analysis.
The initial spacecraft exploration of the Moon in the 1960s-70s yielded extensive data, primarily in the form of film and television images, which were used to produce a large number of hardcopy maps by conventional techniques. A second era of exploration, beginning in the early 1990s, has produced digital data including global multispectral imagery and altimetry, from which a new generation of digital map products tied to a rapidly evolving global control network has been made. Efforts are also underway to scan the earlier hardcopy maps for online distribution and to digitize the film images so that modern processing techniques can be used to make high-resolution digital terrain models (DTMs) and image mosaics consistent with the current global control. The pace of lunar exploration is accelerating dramatically, with as many as eight new missions already launched or planned for the current decade. These missions, of which the most important for cartography are SMART-1 (Europe), Kaguya/SELENE (Japan), Chang'e-1 (China), Chandrayaan-1 (India), and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (USA), will return a volume of data exceeding that of all previous lunar and planetary missions combined. Framing and scanner camera images, including multispectral and stereo data, hyperspectral images, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images, and laser altimetry will all be collected, including, in most cases, multiple data sets of each type. Substantial advances in international standardization and cooperation, development of new and more efficient data processing methods, and availability of resources for processing and archiving will all be needed if the next generation of missions are to fulfill their potential for high-precision mapping of the Moon in support of subsequent exploration and scientific investigation.
The inseparable roles of remote sensing and photogrammetry have been recognized to be consistent with the aims and interests of the American Society of Photogrammetry. In particular, spatial data storage, data merging and manipulation methods and other techniques originally developed for remote sensing applications also have applications for digital cartography. Also, with the introduction of much improved digital processing techniques, even relatively low resolution (80 m) traditional Landsat images can now be digitally mosaicked into excellent quality 1:250,000-scale image maps.
The U. S. Geological Survey National Mapping Division (NMD) has been conducting research and development in digital cartography since the early seventies. Since 1977 there has been an acceleration of activities associated with establishing a National Digital Cartographic Data Base (NDCDB). The NMD Office of Research is primarily responsible for fundamental and applied research together with systems development and technical standards to support the digital cartographic program. Three phases of development have been defined - the current system, an optimum system that can be built with current technology, and a future system that could be defined after some basic research is completed. Some of the current projects related to automated data capture, editing, coding, and structuring are described together with a perspective on future directions. The overall rationale is to develop a very large integrated system that will support a NDCDB and lead toward operational geographic information systems.
Progress in the computer field continues to suggest that the transition from traditional analog mapping systems to digital systems has become a practical possibility. A major shortfall that still exists in digital systems is the need for very large mass storage capacity. The decade of the 1980's has introduced laser optical disk storage technology, which may be the breakthrough needed for mass storage. This paper addresses system concepts for digital cartography during the transition period. Emphasis is placed on determining U. S. Geological Survey mass storage requirements and introducing laser optical disk technology for handling storage problems for digital data in this decade.
A major shortfall that still exists in digital systems is the need for very large mass storage capacity. The decade of the 1980s has introduced laser optical disk storage technology, which may be the breakthrough needed for mass storage. This paper addresses system concepts for digital cartography during the transition period. Emphasis will be placed on determining USGS mass storage requirements and introducing laser optical disk technology for handling storage problems for digital data in this decade.-from Author
The initial spacecraft exploration of the Moon in the 1960s–70s yielded extensive data, primarily in the form of film and television images, that were used to produce a large number of hardcopy maps by conventional techniques. A second era of exploration, beginning in the early 1990s, has produced digital data including global multispectral imagery and altimetry, from which a new generation of digital map products tied to a rapidly evolving global control network has been made. Efforts are also underway to scan the earlier hardcopy maps for online distribution and to digitize the film images themselves so that modern processing techniques can be used to make high-resolution digital terrain models (DTMs) and image mosaics consistent with the current global control. The pace of lunar exploration is about to accelerate dramatically, with as many of seven new missions planned for the current decade. These missions, of which the most important for cartography are SMART-1 (Europe), SELENE (Japan), Chang'E-1 (China), Chandrayaan-1 (India), and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (USA), will return a volume of data exceeding that of all previous lunar and planetary missions combined. Framing and scanner camera images, including multispectral and stereo data, hyperspectral images, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images, and laser altimetry will all be collected, including, in most cases, multiple datasets of each type. Substantial advances in international standardization and cooperation, development of new and more efficient data processing methods, and availability of resources for processing and archiving will all be needed if the next generation of missions are to fulfil their potential for high-precision mapping of the Moon in support of subsequent exploration and scientific investigation.
The initial spacecraft exploration of the Moon in the 1960s–70s yielded extensive data, primarily in the form of film and television images, that were used to produce a large number of hardcopy maps by conventional techniques. A second era of exploration, beginning in the early 1990s, has produced digital data including global multispectral imagery and altimetry, from which a new generation of digital map products tied to a rapidly evolving global control network has been made. Efforts are also underway to scan the earlier hardcopy maps for online distribution and to digitize the film images themselves so that modern processing techniques can be used to make high-resolution digital terrain models (DTMs) and image mosaics consistent with the current global control. The pace of lunar exploration is about to accelerate dramatically, with as many of seven new missions planned for the current decade. These missions, of which the most important for cartography are SMART-1 (Europe), SELENE (Japan), Chang'E-1 (China), Chandrayaan-1 (India), and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (USA), will return a volume of data exceeding that of all previous lunar and planetary missions combined. Framing and scanner camera images, including multispectral and stereo data, hyperspectral images, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images, and laser altimetry will all be collected, including, in most cases, multiple datasets of each type. Substantial advances in international standardization and cooperation, development of new and more efficient data processing methods, and availability of resources for processing and archiving will all be needed if the next generation of missions are to fulfil their potential for high-precision mapping of the Moon in support of subsequent exploration and scientific investigation.
The entire surface of the planet Venus is being mapped at global and regional scales (1:50,000,000 through 1:1,500,000) with synthetic aperture radar (SAR), radar altimeter, and radiometer measurements of physical properties from the Magellan spacecraft. The mapping includes SAR image mosaics, shaded relief maps, and topographic contour overlays made from altimetry data and by radargrammetric methods. Methods used include new techniques of radar image processing that became operational as a result of the Magellan mission. The area being mapped (at a resolution of 75 m/pixel) is roughly equivalent to that of Earth, including seafloors. The mapping is designed to support geologic and geophysical investigations.
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is the prime source of many kinds of topographic and special-purpose maps of the United States and its outlying areas. It is also a prime source of digital map data. One main goal of the USGS is to provide large-scale topographic map coverage of the entire United States. Most of the Nation is already covered. We expect that initial coverage will be completed by 1991. For many purposes, many public agencies, private organizations, and individuals need reliable cartographic and geographic knowledge about our Nation. To serve such needs, all USGS maps are compiled to exacting standards of accuracy and content.
The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the processing of digital television pictures into base maps. In this context, a base map is defined as a pictorial representation of planetary surface morphology accurately reproduced on standard map projections. Topographic contour lines, albedo or geologic overprints may be super imposed on these base maps. The compilation of geodetic map controls, the techniques of mosaic compilation, computer processing and airbrush enhancement, and the compilation of con tour lines are discussed elsewhere by the originators of these techniques. A bibliography of applicable literature is included for readers interested in more detailed discussions.
The boundary between the States of Ohio and Kentucky and Indiana and Kentucky has been in dispute for many years. A major breakthrough in this continuing dispute has been a recent agreement between the States to accept the boundary line as depicted on U. S. Geological Survey 7. 5-minute quadrangle maps. A new segment of the boundary line was established utilizing the shoreline depicted on the 1966 U. S. Army Corps of Engineers charts. Segments of the boundary were then digitized from the quadrangle maps.
The development and application of digital cartographic data bases are significant and important activities in the Federal Government. Increasingly, digital spatial data are being used for computer-based analyses in support of management decisions on land, forests, minerals, and energy.