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At least 1,783 records · Page 99Linked to original sources
USGS2020

Solar and sensor geometry, not vegetation response, drive satellite NDVI phenology in widespread ecosystems of the western United States

Satellite-derived phenology metrics are valuable tools for understanding broad-scale patterns and changes in vegetated landscapes over time. However, the extraction and interpretation of phenology in ecosystems with subtle growth dynamics can be challenging. US National Park Service monitoring of evergreen pinyon-juniper ecosystems in the western US revealed an unexpected winter-peaking phenological pattern in normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) time-series derived from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) imagery. In this paper, we assess the validity of the winter peaks through ground-based observation of phenology and examination of solar and satellite geometry effects. To test the premise of a true vegetation response, we analyzed NDVI values extracted from a time series of ground-based digital camera (‘phenocam’) images collected September 2017 to December 2018 in a pinyon-juniper woodland in Arizona, US. Results show pinyon and juniper growth peaked in the warm season, as did the other species in the phenocam field of view. NDVI time series from four other sensors (Landsat 7, Sentinel-2, VIIRS, and Proba-V) confirmed that winter peaks in this ecosystem are not limited to MODIS products. Examination of NDVI time series (2003–2018) derived from daily 250-m MODIS data in the broader pinyon-juniper ecosystem revealed that solar-to-sensor angle, sensor zenith angle, and forward/back-scatter reflectance explained >80% of intra-annual variability. Solar-to-sensor angle exerted the greatest control, and the direction of its correlation (positive) was the opposite of that which would be expected if it were driven by vegetation greenness. Solar-to-sensor angle is controlled seasonally by solar zenith angle and daily by variations in satellite overpass geometry. We mapped winter peaks across the western US in Google Earth Engine using 500-m MODIS MCD43A4 data, which correct for reflectance differences caused by view angle. In areas where winter vegetation peaks are ecologically improbable (i.e., locations with sub-freezing December temperatures), consistent winter peaks (≥ 14 years in 2003 to 2018) are widespread in both pinyon-juniper and non-pinyon-juniper conifer ecosystems; winter peaks are common (≥ 5 years in 2003 to 2018) across areas of shrubland. We attribute winter peaks to the positive correlation of NDVI with solar-to-sensor angle and solar zenith angle in combination with sparse, vertically oriented evergreen vegetation canopies. Increasing shadow visibility has been shown to increase overall NDVI, and the prevalence of the winter peaking in evergreen western sparse canopy ecosystems is consistent with this hypothesis. The extent of winter peaking patterns may have been previously overlooked due to temporal compositing, curve fitting, and incomplete snow screening.

Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nev↗
USGS2001

Geological processes and evolution

Geological mapping and establishment of stratigraphic relationships provides an overview of geological processes operating on Mars and how they have varied in time and space. Impact craters and basins shaped the crust in earliest history and as their importance declined, evidence of extensive regional volcanism emerged during the Late Noachian. Regional volcanism characterized the Early Hesperian and subsequent to that time, volcanism was largely centered at Tharsis and Elysium, continuing until the recent geological past. The Tharsis region appears to have been largely constructed by the Late Noachian, and represents a series of tectonic and volcanic centers. Globally distributed structural features representing contraction characterize the middle Hesperian. Water-related processes involve the formation of valley networks in the Late Noachian and into the Hesperian, an ice sheet at the south pole in the middle Hesperian, and outflow channels and possible standing bodies of water in the northern lowlands in the Late Hesperian and into the Amazonian. A significant part of the present water budget occurs in the present geologically young polar layered terrains. In order to establish more firmly rates of processes, we stress the need to improve the calibration of the absolute timescale, which today is based on crater count systems with substantial uncertainties, along with a sampling of rocks of unknown provenance. Sample return from carefully chosen stratigraphic units could calibrate the existing timescale and vastly improve our knowledge of Martian evolution.

Conference Paper↗
USGS2014

Baseline coastal oblique aerial photographs collected from Breton Island, Louisiana, to the Alabama-Florida border, July 13, 2013

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) conducts baseline and storm response photography missions to document and understand the changes in vulnerability of the Nation's coasts to extreme storms. On July 13, 2013, the USGS conducted an oblique aerial photographic survey from Breton Island, Louisiana, to the Alabama-Florida border, aboard a Cessna 172 flying at an altitude of 500 feet (ft) and approximately 1,000 ft offshore. This mission was flown to collect baseline data for assessing incremental changes since the last survey, and the data can be used in the assessment of future coastal change. The images provided here are Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) images. ExifTtool was used to add the following to the header of each photo: time of collection, Global Positioning System (GPS) latitude, GPS longitude, keywords, credit, artist (photographer), caption, copyright, and contact information. The photograph locations are an estimate of the position of the aircraft and do not indicate the location of any feature in the images (see the Navigation Data page). These photographs document the configuration of the barrier islands and other coastal features at the time of the survey. Pages containing thumbnail images of the photographs, referred to as contact sheets, were created in 5-minute segments of flight time. These segements can be found on the Photos and Maps page. Photographs can be opened directly with any JPEG-compatible image viewer by clicking on a thumbnail on the contact sheet. Table 1 provides detailed information about the GPS location, name, date, and time each of the 1242 photographs taken along with links to each photograph. The photography is organized into segments, also referred to as contact sheets, and represent approximately 5 minutes of flight time. (Also see the Photos and Maps page). In addition to the photographs, a Google Earth Keyhole Markup Language (KML) file is provided and can be used to view the images by clicking on the marker and then clicking on either the thumbnail or the link above the thumbnail. The KML files were created using the photographic navigation files.

Alabama;Florida;Louisiana;Mississippi↗
USGS2014

Baseline coastal oblique aerial photographs collected from Dauphin Island, Alabama, to Breton Island, Louisiana, August 8, 2012

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) conducts baseline and storm response photography missions to document and understand the changes in vulnerability of the Nation's coasts to extreme storms. On August 8, 2012, the USGS conducted an oblique aerial photographic survey from Dauphin Island, Alabama, to Breton Island, Louisiana, aboard a Cessna 172 at an altitude of 500 feet (ft) and approximately 1,000 ft offshore. This mission was flown to collect baseline data for assessing incremental changes since the last survey, and the data can be used in the assessment of future coastal change. The images provided here are Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) images. Exiftool was used to add the following to the header of each photo: time of collection, Global Positioning System (GPS) latitude, GPS longitude, keywords, credit, artist (photographer), caption, copyright, and contact information. The photograph locations are an estimate of the position of the aircraft and do not indicate the location of any feature in the images (see the Navigation Data page). These photographs document the configuration of the barrier islands and other coastal features at the time of the survey. Pages containing thumbnail images of the photographs, referred to as contact sheets, were created in 5-minute segments of flight time. These segements can be found on the Photos and Maps page. Photographs can be opened directly with any JPEG-compatible image viewer by clicking on a thumbnail on the contact sheet. Table 1 provides detailed information about the GPS location, name, date, and time each of the 1241 photographs taken along with links to each photograph. The photography is organized into segments, also referred to as contact sheets, and represent approximately 5 minutes of flight time. (Also see the Photos and Maps page). In addition to the photographs, a Google Earth Keyhole Markup Language (KML) file is provided and can be used to view the images by clicking on the marker and then clicking on either the thumbnail or the link above the thumbnail. The KML files were created using the photographic navigation files.

Alabama;Louisiana↗
USGS2010

Hydrostratigraphic mapping of the Milford-Souhegan glacial drift aquifer, and effects of hydrostratigraphy on transport of PCE, Operable Unit 1, Savage Superfund Site, Milford, New Hampshire

The Savage Municipal Well Superfund site in the Town of Milford, New Hampshire, was underlain by a 0.5-square mile plume (as mapped in 1994) of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), most of which consisted of tetrachloroethylene (PCE). The plume occurs mostly within highly transmissive stratified-drift deposits but also extends into underlying till and bedrock. The plume has been divided into two areas called Operable Unit 1 (OU1), which contains the primary source area, and Operable Unit 2 (OU2), which is defined as the extended plume area outside of OU1. The OU1 remedial system includes a low-permeability barrier wall that encircles the highest detected concentrations of PCE and a series of injection and extraction wells to contain and remove contaminants. The barrier wall likely penetrates the full thickness of the sand and gravel; in many places, it also penetrates the full thickness of the underlying basal till and sits atop bedrock. From 1998 to 2004, PCE concentrations decreased by an average of 80 percent at most wells outside the barrier wall. However, inside the barrier, PCE concentrations greater than 10,000 micrograms per liter (μg/L) still exist (2008). The remediation of these areas of recalcitrant PCE presents challenges to successful remediation. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services (NHDES) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Region 1, is studying the solute transport of VOCs (primarily PCE) in contaminated groundwater in the unconsolidated sediments (overburden) of the Savage site and specifically assisting in the evaluation of the effectiveness of remedial operations in the OU1 area. As part of this effort, the USGS analyzed the subsurface stratigraphy to help understand hydrostratigraphic controls on remediation. A combination of lithologic, borehole natural gamma-ray and electromagnetic (EM) induction logging, and test drilling has identified 11 primary hydrostratigraphic units in OU1. These 11 units consist of several well-sorted sandy layers with some gravel that are separated by poorly sorted cobble layers with a fine-grained matrix. Collectively these units represent glacial sediments deposited by localized ice-margin fluctuations. For the most part, the units are semi-planar, particularly the cobble units, and truncated by an undulating bedrock surface. The lowermost unit is a basal till that ranges in thickness from zero to greater than 10 feet and mantles the bedrock surface. The 11 units have different lithologic and hydraulic characteristics. The hydraulic conductivity of the well-sorted sand and gravel units is typically greater than the conductivity of the poorly sorted cobble units and the basal till. The hydraulic conductivity ranges from 5 to greater than 500 feet per day. Lateral and vertical variation in lithology and hydraulic conductivity are inferred by variations in borehole natural gamma-ray counts and estimates of hydraulic conductivity. The comparison of hydrostratigraphic units with the spatial distribution of PCE concentrations suggests that solute transport away from source areas is primarily lateral within the permeable sandy units in the middle to lower parts of the aquifer. Along the centerline of the interior barrier area, highest PCE concentrations are in the sandy units to the east of suspected source areas.

New Hampshire↗
USGS1983

Structure maps and seismic stratigraphy of the Yakataga segment of the continental margin, northern Gulf of Alaska

Multichannel seismic-reflection data show the late Cenozoic structure, seismic stratigraphy, and geologic history of the Yakataga segment of the continental margin, between Icy Bay and Kayak Island, northern Gulf of Alaska. The structure of the Yakataga segment consists of broad folds and associated thrust faults beneath the continental shelf and slope, trending generally northeast in the eastern part of the s~gment to east-west in the western part. Anticlines are generally asymmetric and doubly plunging and are commonly bounded on the seaward side by high-angle thrust faults. The degree of deformation is less intense than is observed in adjacent onshore areas. The age of deformation decreases seaward and the deformation shows an overall southeastward migration with time. Structures of similar age define three structural zones; structural growth was roughly contemporaneous in each structural zone, although the local growth pattern is complex in detail. Deformation within each structural zone was followed by subsidence and burial by rapidly deposited marine sediment. Deformation appears to have been continuous during the late Cenozoic, rather than a series of discrete events, because subsidence of a particular structural zone is accompanied by initiation of growth on a younger, more seaward zone. Varying degrees of reactivation of the older structures within recent time have resulted in renewed uplift of these structures. Average sedimentation, uplift, and subsidence rates are all extremely high, and generally range from about 1 to 2 m/1,000 yr; these rates can locally be much higher. The average strike of structures in the Yakataga segment indicates northwest-southeastward compression and is consistent with the current convergence direction between the Pacific and North America plates. Observed shortening within the segment is much less than required by the late Cenozoic convergence rate (about 6 cm/yr), and the major deformation is taken up elsewhere, primarily onshore. Thus, the deformation of the Yakataga segment is caused by minor shortening of the continental margin between Cross Sound and Kayak Island, which together comprise the Yakutat block, as the margin moves northwestward with the Pacific plate and collides with the North America plate.

Alaska↗
USGS2012

Local-area-enhanced, 2.5-meter resolution natural-color and color-infrared satellite-image mosaics of the Balkhab mineral district in Afghanistan: Chapter B in Local-area-enhanced, high-resolution natural-color and color-infrared satellite-image mosaics of mineral districts in Afghanistan

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Defense Task Force for Business and Stability Operations, prepared databases for mineral-resource target areas in Afghanistan. The purpose of the databases is to (1) provide useful data to ground-survey crews for use in performing detailed assessments of the areas and (2) provide useful information to private investors who are considering investment in a particular area for development of its natural resources. The set of satellite-image mosaics provided in this Data Series (DS) is one such database. Although airborne digital color-infrared imagery was acquired for parts of Afghanistan in 2006, the image data have radiometric variations that preclude their use in creating a consistent image mosaic for geologic analysis. Consequently, image mosaics were created using ALOS (Advanced Land Observation Satellite; renamed Daichi) satellite images, whose radiometry has been well determined (Saunier, 2007a,b). This part of the DS consists of the locally enhanced ALOS image mosaics for the Balkhab mineral district, which has copper deposits. ALOS was launched on January 24, 2006, and provides multispectral images from the AVNIR (Advanced Visible and Near-Infrared Radiometer) sensor in blue (420-500 nanometer, nm), green (520-600 nm), red (610-690 nm), and near-infrared (760-890 nm) wavelength bands with an 8-bit dynamic range and a 10-meter (m) ground resolution. The satellite also provides a panchromatic band image from the PRISM (Panchromatic Remote-sensing Instrument for Stereo Mapping) sensor (520-770 nm) with the same dynamic range but a 2.5-m ground resolution. The image products in this DS incorporate copyrighted data provided by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (©JAXA,2007,2008), but the image processing has altered the original pixel structure and all image values of the JAXA ALOS data, such that original image values cannot be recreated from this DS. As such, the DS products match JAXA criteria for value added products, which are not copyrighted, according to the ALOS end-user license agreement. The selection criteria for the satellite imagery used in our mosaics were images having (1) the highest solar-elevation angles (near summer solstice) and (2) the least cloud, cloud-shadow, and snow cover. The multispectral and panchromatic data were orthorectified with ALOS satellite ephemeris data, a process which is not as accurate as orthorectification using digital elevation models (DEMs); however, the ALOS processing center did not have a precise DEM. As a result, the multispectral and panchromatic image pairs were generally not well registered to the surface and not coregistered well enough to perform resolution enhancement on the multispectral data. Therefore, it was necessary to (1) register the 10-m AVNIR multispectral imagery to a well-controlled Landsat image base, (2) mosaic the individual multispectral images into a single image of the entire area of interest, (3) register each panchromatic image to the registered multispectral image base, and (4) mosaic the individual panchromatic images into a single image of the entire area of interest. The two image-registration steps were facilitated using an automated control-point algorithm developed by the USGS that allows image coregistration to within one picture element. Before rectification, the multispectral and panchromatic images were converted to radiance values and then to relative-reflectance values using the methods described in Davis (2006). Mosaicking the multispectral or panchromatic images started with the image with the highest sun-elevation angle and the least atmospheric scattering, which was treated as the standard image. The band-reflectance values of all other multispectral or panchromatic images within the area were sequentially adjusted to that of the standard image by determining band-reflectance correspondence between overlapping images using linear least-squares analysis. The resolution of the multispectral image mosaic was then increased to that of the panchromatic image mosaic using the SPARKLE logic, which is described in Davis (2006). Each of the four-band images within the resolution-enhanced image mosaic was individually subjected to a local-area histogram stretch algorithm (described in Davis, 2007), which stretches each band's picture element based on the digital values of all picture elements within a 315-m radius. The final databases, which are provided in this DS, are three-band, color-composite images of the local-area-enhanced, natural-color data (the blue, green, and red wavelength bands) and color-infrared data (the green, red, and near-infrared wavelength bands). All image data were initially projected and maintained in Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) map projection using the target area's local zone (42 for Balkhab) and the WGS84 datum. The final image mosaics were subdivided into two overlapping tiles or quadrants because of the large size of the target area. The two image tiles (or quadrants) for the Balkhab area are provided as embedded geotiff images, which can be read and used by most geographic information system (GIS) and image-processing software. The tiff world files (tfw) are provided, even though they are generally not needed for most software to read an embedded geotiff image. Within the Balkhab study area, one subarea was designated for detailed field investigations (that is, the Balkhab Prospect subarea); this subarea was extracted from the area's image mosaic and is provided as separate embedded geotiff images.

Balkh;Samangan;Sari-Pul↗
USGS1979

Suspended- and bedload-sediment transport in the Snake and Clearwater rivers in the vicinity of Lewiston, Idaho, August 1976 through July 1978

Impoundment of water in the Snake River and Clearwater River arms behind Lower Granite Dam (see cover map) began in June 1975. At this time, Lower Granite Reservoir and Lock facilities, constructed by the USACE (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers), Walla Walla District, became operational. Construction and operation of this facility necessitated collection of hydrologic data that did not exist prior to construction. The USACE requested the USGS (U.S. Geological Survey) to collect hydraulic- and channel-geometry data and describe sediment-transport characteristics, beginning in the spring of 1972. This report summarizes information collected during August 1976 through July 1978 and is the fifth in a series of reports designed to release hydrologic data on a timely basis. Although some of the data were collected during the late summer and fall periods (August through December) of 1976 and 1977, most were collected during the spring runoff periods of 1977 and 1978. Therefore, for convenience, data contained in this report will be referred to as the 1977-78 data. Because this is primarily a basic-data report, no interpretation of the data is provided. This report presents tables of selected data collected and computations compiled since the 1976 report (Seitz, 1976). Most of the tabular data are also presented on graphs. Some of the graphs show plots of data since 1972~ others show plots of only the 1977-78 data. Relatively minor amounts of bedload were transported during the 1977 drought period. Therefore, regular scheduled sampling of the bedload was impractical. Only two bedload samples were collected from the Clearwater River in 1977. The resultant data are included in tables 10, 12, and 14, and figure 6. All bedload data in this report should be considered tentative, pending completion of sampler-calibration studies and possible adjustment of the data to correct for sampler efficiency. An analysis of the middle Snake River streamflow record was made during 1977. The streamflow rating for the Snake River near Anatone, Washington, gage was found to be in error at high stages. The streamflow record for water years 1974 and 1975 was revised and published with 1976 water-year data (Water Resources Data for Idaho, Water Year 1976). The revised Snake River near Anatone streamflow rating was used to recompute the sediment-discharge rating curve (fig. 3). This study program is funded by the USACE through a cooperative agreement with the USGS. All field work, laboratory analysis, and compilation of data are being conducted by the USGS. Data collection is scheduled to terminate at the end of the 1979 runoff season. A reanalysis of all data collected since the start of the program will correct all provisional records since 1972, including the 1974, 1975, and 1976 years for the Snake River near Anatone station.

Idaho↗
USGS2006

Development and application of a screening model for simulating regional ground-water flow in the St. Croix River basin, Minnesota and Wisconsin

A series of databases and an accompanying screening model were constructed by the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the National Park Service, to better understand the regional ground-water-flow system and its relation to stream drainage in the St. Croix River Basin. The St. Croix River and its tributaries drain about 8,000 square miles in northeastern Minnesota and northwestern Wisconsin. The databases contain information for the entire St. Croix River Basin pertaining to well logs, lithology, thickness of lithologic groups, ground-water levels, streamflow, and well pumpage. Maps and generalized cross sections created from the compiled data show the lithologic groups, extending from the water table to the crystalline bedrock, through which ground water flows. These lithologic groups are: fine-grained unconsolidated deposits; coarse-grained unconsolidated deposits; sandstone bedrock; carbonate bedrock; and other bedrock lithologies including shale, siltstone, conglomerate, and igneous intrusions. The steady-state screening model treats the ground-water-flow system as a single layer with transmissivity zones that reflect the distribution of lithologic groups, and with recharge zones that correspond to general areas of high or low evapotranspiration. The model includes representation of second- and higher-order streams and municipal and other high-capacity production wells. The analytic-element model code GFLOW was used to simulate the regional ground-water flow, the water-table surface across the St. Croix River Basin, and base-flow contributions from ground water to streams. In addition, the model routes tributary base flow through the stream network to the St. Croix River. The parameter-estimation inverse model UCODE was linked to the GFLOW model to select the combination of parameter values best able to match over 5,000 water-level measurements and base-flow estimates at 22 streamflow-gaging stations. Results from the calibrated screening model show ground-water contributing areas for selected stream reaches within the basin. The delineation of these areas is useful to water-resource managers concerned with protection of fisheries and other resources. The model results also identify the areas of the basin where ground-water travel time from the water table to streams and wells is relatively short (less than 50 years). Ninety percent of the simulated ground-water pathlines require travel times between 3 and 260 years. The median pathline distance traversed and the median pathline velocity were 1.7 mi and 177 ft/y, respectively. It is important to recognize the limitations of this screening model. Heterogeneities in subsurface properties and in recharge rates are considered only at a very broad scale (miles to tens of miles). No account is taken of vertical variations in properties or pumping rates, and no provision is made to account for stacked ground-water-flow systems that have different flow patterns at different depths. Small-scale (hundreds to thousands of feet) flow systems associated with minor water bodies are neglected, and as a result, the model is not useful for simulating typical site-specific problems. Despite its limitations, the model serves as a framework for understanding the regional pattern of ground-water flow and as a starting point for a generation of more targeted and detailed ground-water models that would be needed to address emerging water-supply and water-quality concerns in the St. Croix River Basin.

Scientific Investigations Report↗
USGS2021

Optimization of the Idaho National Laboratory water-quality aquifer monitoring network, southeastern Idaho

Long-term monitoring of water-quality data collected from wells at the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) has provided essential information for delineating the movement of radiochemical and chemical wastes in the eastern Snake River Plain aquifer, southeastern Idaho. Since 1949, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy, has maintained as many as 200 wells in the INL water-quality monitoring network. A network design tool, distributed as an R package, was developed to evaluate and optimize groundwater monitoring in the existing network based on water-quality data collected at 153 sampling sites since January 1, 1989. The objective of the optimization design tool is to reduce well monitoring redundancy while retaining sufficient data to reliably characterize water-quality conditions in the aquifer. A spatial optimization was used to identify a set of wells whose removal leads to the smallest increase in the deviation between interpolated concentration maps using the existing and reduced monitoring networks while preserving significant long-term trends and seasonal components in the data. Additionally, a temporal optimization was used to identify reductions in sampling frequencies by minimizing the redundancy in sampling events. Spatial optimization uses an islands genetic algorithm to identify near-optimal network designs removing 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 wells from the existing monitoring network. With this method, choosing a greater number of wells to remove results in greater cost savings and decreased accuracy of the average relative difference between interpolated maps of the reduced-dataset and the full-dataset. The genetic search algorithm identified reduced networks that best capture the spatial patterns of the average concentration plume while preserving long-term temporal trends at individual wells. Concentration data for 10 analyte types are integrated in a single optimization so that all datasets may be evaluated simultaneously. A constituent was selected for inclusion in the spatial optimization problem when the observations were sufficient to (1) establish a two-range variability model, (2) classify at least one concentration time series as a continuous record block, and (3) make a prediction using the quantile-kriging interpolation method. The selected constituents include sodium, chloride, sulfate, nitrate, carbon tetrachloride, 1,1-dichloroethylene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, tritium, strontium-90, and plutonium-238. In temporal optimization, an iterative-thinning method was used to find an optimal sampling frequency for each analyte-well pair. Optimal frequencies indicate that for many of the wells, samples may be collected less frequently and still be able to characterize the concentration over time. The optimization results indicated that the sample-collection interval may be increased by an of average of 273 days owing to temporal redundancy.

Idaho↗
USGS2013

Local-area-enhanced, 2.5-meter resolution natural-color and color-infrared satellite-image mosaics of the Kandahar mineral district in Afghanistan

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Defense Task Force for Business and Stability Operations, prepared databases for mineral-resource target areas in Afghanistan. The purpose of the databases is to (1) provide useful data to ground-survey crews for use in performing detailed assessments of the areas and (2) provide useful information to private investors who are considering investment in a particular area for development of its natural resources. The set of satellite-image mosaics provided in this Data Series (DS) is one such database. Although airborne digital color-infrared imagery was acquired for parts of Afghanistan in 2006, the image data have radiometric variations that preclude their use in creating a consistent image mosaic for geologic analysis. Consequently, image mosaics were created using ALOS (Advanced Land Observation Satellite; renamed Daichi) satellite images, whose radiometry has been well determined (Saunier, 2007a,b). This part of the DS consists of the locally enhanced ALOS image mosaics for the Kandahar mineral district, which has bauxite deposits. ALOS was launched on January 24, 2006, and provides multispectral images from the AVNIR (Advanced Visible and Near-Infrared Radiometer) sensor in blue (420-500 nanometer, nm), green (520-600 nm), red (610-690 nm), and near-infrared (760-890 nm) wavelength bands with an 8-bit dynamic range and a 10-meter (m) ground resolution. The satellite also provides a panchromatic band image from the PRISM (Panchromatic Remote-sensing Instrument for Stereo Mapping) sensor (520-770 nm) with the same dynamic range but a 2.5-m ground resolution. The image products in this DS incorporate copyrighted data provided by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ((c)JAXA,2006,2007,2008), but the image processing has altered the original pixel structure and all image values of the JAXA ALOS data, such that original image values cannot be recreated from this DS. As such, the DS products match JAXA criteria for value added products, which are not copyrighted, according to the ALOS end-user license agreement. The selection criteria for the satellite imagery used in our mosaics were images having (1) the highest solar- elevation angles (near summer solstice) and (2) the least cloud, cloud-shadow, and snow cover. The multispectral and panchromatic data were orthorectified with ALOS satellite ephemeris data, a process which is not as accurate as orthorectification using digital elevation models (DEMs); however, the ALOS processing center did not have a precise DEM. As a result, the multispectral and panchromatic image pairs were generally not well registered to the surface and not coregistered well enough to perform resolution enhancement on the multispectral data. Therefore, it was necessary to (1) register the 10-m AVNIR multispectral imagery to a well-controlled Landsat image base, (2) mosaic the individual multispectral images into a single image of the entire area of interest, (3) register each panchromatic image to the registered multispectral image base, and (4) mosaic the individual panchromatic images into a single image of the entire area of interest. The two image- registration steps were facilitated using an automated control-point algorithm developed by the USGS that allows image coregistration to within one picture element. Before rectification, the multispectral and panchromatic images were converted to radiance values and then to relative- reflectance values using the methods described in Davis (2006). Mosaicking the multispectral or panchromatic images started with the image with the highest sun-elevation angle and the least atmospheric scattering, which was treated as the standard image. The band-reflectance values of all other multispectral or panchromatic images within the area were sequentially adjusted to that of the standard image by determining band-reflectance correspondence between overlapping images using linear least-squares analysis. The resolution of the multispectral image mosaic was then increased to that of the panchromatic image mosaic using the SPARKLE logic, which is described in Davis (2006). Each of the four-band images within the resolution-enhanced image mosaic was individually subjected to a local-area histogram stretch algorithm (described in Davis, 2007), which stretches each band's picture element based on the digital values of all picture elements within a 500-m radius. The final databases, which are provided in this DS, are three-band, color-composite images of the local-area- enhanced, natural-color data (the blue, green, and red wavelength bands) and color-infrared data (the green, red, and near-infrared wavelength bands). All image data were initially projected and maintained in Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) map projection using the target area's local zone (42 for Kandahar) and the WGS84 datum. The final image mosaics were subdivided into eight overlapping tiles or quadrants because of the large size of the target area. The eight image tiles (or quadrants) for the Kandahar area are provided as embedded geotiff images, which can be read and used by most geographic information system (GIS) and image-processing software. The tiff world files (tfw) are provided, even though they are generally not needed for most software to read an embedded geotiff image. Within the Kandahar study area, two subareas were designated for detailed field investigations (that is, the Obatu-Shela and Sekhab-Zamto Kalay subareas); these subareas were extracted from the area's image mosaic and are provided as separate embedded geotiff images.

Kandahar Mineral District↗
USGS2016

Modeled streamflow metrics on small, ungaged stream reaches in the Upper Colorado River Basin

Modeling streamflow is an important approach for understanding landscape-scale drivers of flow and estimating flows where there are no streamgage records. In this study conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with Colorado State University, the objectives were to model streamflow metrics on small, ungaged streams in the Upper Colorado River Basin and identify streams that are potentially threatened with becoming intermittent under drier climate conditions. The Upper Colorado River Basin is a region that is critical for water resources and also projected to experience large future climate shifts toward a drying climate. A random forest modeling approach was used to model the relationship between streamflow metrics and environmental variables. Flow metrics were then projected to ungaged reaches in the Upper Colorado River Basin using environmental variables for each stream, represented as raster cells, in the basin. Last, the projected random forest models of minimum flow coefficient of variation and specific mean daily flow were used to highlight streams that had greater than 61.84 percent minimum flow coefficient of variation and less than 0.096 specific mean daily flow and suggested that these streams will be most threatened to shift to intermittent flow regimes under drier climate conditions. Map projection products can help scientists, land managers, and policymakers understand current hydrology in the Upper Colorado River Basin and make informed decisions regarding water resources. With knowledge of which streams are likely to undergo significant drying in the future, managers and scientists can plan for stream-dependent ecosystems and human water users.

Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming↗
USGS1985

Interpretations from multichannel seismic-reflection profiles of the deep crust crossing South Carolina and Georgia from the Appalachian Mountains to the Atlantic Coast

Over the past decade, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has been investigating the cause of the Charleston, S.C., earthquake of 1886 and the likelihood of future earthquakes of similar magnitude (m b 6.9–7.2, Bollinger, 1977). As part of that work, multichannel reflection surveys were started in 1979 in the Charleston area, on 1 and (Behrendt and others, 1981; Hamilton and others, 1983) and offshore (Behrendt and others, 1983). The data for lines across the continental margin were tied into the USGS offshore seismic grid in the area discussed by Dillon and others (1979). At about the same time (1978–79), Consortium for Continental Reflection Profiling (COCORP) lines in Georgia and in the Charleston, S. C., area were recorded (Cook and others, 1979; Cook and others, 1981; Schilt and others, 1983). The COCORP data for Georgia (Cook and others, 1979) and other reflection data to the northeast, as discussed by Harris and Bayer (1979), indicated the presence of the Appalachian décollement, extending seaward from the Appalachian Mountains. The authors of these papers inferred that the Appalachian décollement might extend across the Piedmont and Coastal Plain to the continental shelf. Subsequently, Iverson and Smithson (1982) suggested, on the basis of their reprocessing of the COCORP line in Georgia, that the décollement was rooted in the area of the Kings Mountain and the Carolina slate belts. The multichannel seismic-reflection data for the Charleston, S. C., area (Behrendt and others, 1981, 1983; Schilt and others, 1983) provided evidence, particularly strong offshore, of the existence of a reflecting surface at a depth of 11.4±1.5 km that was suggested as a décollement. Behrendt and others (1981, 1983) suggested that the Charleston earthquake of 1886 might have been caused by movement on the décollement or on associated listric faults. Seeber and Armbruster (1981) suggested that movement on the Appalachian décollement, if it continued coastward to Charleston, might have caused the Charleston earthquake of 1886. The best determined focal depths for recent seismicity, from data recorded by a seismograph network operated by the USGS in the Charleston, S. C., area since 1973, are shallower than 13+2 km (Tarr and others, 1981; and Tarr and Rhea, 1983), or above the suggested décollement. The seismic-reflection data have also shown the existence of several Triassic (?) basins beneath the Coastal Plain Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic sedimentary rock section (Behrendt and others, 1981; Behrendt, 1983; Costain and Glover, 1983; Hamilton and others, 1983; Petersen and others, 1984). The basins, in several cases, appear to be bounded by high-angle normal faults. Some of these faults may have been reactivated in Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic time as apparently reverse faults. Also they are suggested to be listric onto the décollement, thereby bearing a causal relation to Charleston seismicity (Behrendt, 1983; Behrendt and others, 1983). The question of whether the Appalachian décollement is continuous to the coast is, therefore, important not only for the general understanding of the tectonics of the southeastern United States but for an understanding of the earthquake-hazard question as well. For these reasons, three long, deep-crustal, multichannel seismic-reflection profiles (S4, S6, and S8) were obtained by the USGS to address the problem. This report presents illustrations of interpretations of the profiles discussed by Behrendt (in press). The Appalachian décollement does not appear continuous from the Appalachian Mountains to the coast but rather appears to extend southeastward only to the Carolina slate belt. A series of reflections on lines S4, S6, and S8 and on the COCORP line is interpreted as evidence of southeastward-dipping imbricate faults, from the Brevard fault on the northwest to beyond the Augusta fault, which marks the southeastern extent of the Eastern Piedmont fault zone. The Carolina slate belt is characterized on the four seismic profiles by a complex series of diffractions and reflections extending from less than 1 s to 8 s. These arrivals are possibly the result of layering in the metasedimentary rocks complexly disrupted by the imbricate faults. A number of Triassic (?) basins are apparent in the reflection data for the rifted Charleston terrane identified from low-gradient magnetic anomalies.

Miscellaneous Field Studies Map↗
USGS1996

Uncertainty of groundwater vulnerability assessments for agricultural regions in Hawaii: Review

There are important challenges associated with assessing potential groundwater vulnerability hazards that may result from regional scale applications of agrochemicals. The increasing availability of Geographic Information System (GIS) software to those involved in assisting with landuse decisions has resulted in the widespread production of multicolored risk management maps for many environmentally sensitive issues. Soil-based GIS's have recently been coupled to various solute-leaching models to make near-surface groundwater vulnerability assessments for guidance in pesticide regulation in several states. In general, these assessments rest on soil, climatic, and chemical data that are extremely sparse and contain considerable uncertainty. It is also important to acknowledge the uncertainty associated with the transport/fate processes that are not accounted for by the modeling approach used to make the assessment. In this paper, we review the results from a series of papers that have focused on characterization of uncertainty in pesticide mobility estimates, using the attenuation and retardation indices (AF and RF), for the Pearl Harbor Basin on the Hawaiian island of Oahu. Relative to data error uncertainties, we discuss the impacts of: (i) soil, climatic, and chemical data base uncertainties, (ii) reductions in data base uncertainties, (iii) extrapolation of soil data base information based on soil taxonomy and soil survey, and (iv) importing information from outside the region of interest. Relative to model error uncertainties, we compare pesticide leaching estimates from the simple AF and RF mobility indices with simulations from the EPA's Pesticide Root Zone Model (PRZM) and field observations. Finally, we outline a Regional Integrated Risk Assessment approach for characterizing regional scale groundwater vulnerability for near-surface nonpoint sources.

Hawaii↗
USGS2002

Water-level altitudes 2002 and water-level changes in the Chicot, Evangeline, and Jasper aquifers and compaction 1973-2001 in the Chicot and Evangeline aquifers, Houston-Galveston region, Texas

This report is one in an annual series of reports that depicts water-level altitudes and water-level changes in the Chicot, Evangeline, and Jasper aquifers, and compaction in the Chicot and Evangeline aquifers in the Houston-Galveston region. The Houston-Galveston region comprises Harris, Galveston, Fort Bend, Waller, and Montgomery Counties and adjacent parts of Brazoria, Grimes, Walker, San Jacinto, Liberty, and Chambers Counties. The report was prepared in cooperation with the Harris-Galveston Coastal Subsidence District, the City of Houston, and the Fort Bend Subsidence District. For the Chicot and Evangeline aquifers, maps show approximate water-level altitudes in 2002, water-level changes from 2001 to 2002, approximate water-level changes from 1977 to 2002, lines of zero water-level change for intervals increasing in 5-year increments beginning with 1977–82, and approximate water-level changes from 1990 to 2002 (in the Fort Bend subregion [Fort Bend County and adjacent areas]) (figs. 1–10). For the Jasper aquifer, maps show approximate water-level altitudes in 2002 and water-level changes from 2001 to 2002 and 2000 to 2002 (figs. 11–13). The report also contains a map showing extensometer (well equipped with compaction monitor) site locations (fig. 14) and graphs showing measured compaction of subsurface material at selected sites from 1973 or later to 2001 (fig. 15). The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has published annual reports of water-level altitudes and water-level changes for the Chicot and Evangeline aquifers in the Houston-Galveston region since 1979; and separate annual reports of same for the Fort Bend subregion since 1990. The USGS published its first water-level-altitude map for the Jasper aquifer in the greater Houston area (primarily Montgomery County) in 2001. This year (2002), the altitude and change maps for the three aquifers are in this report.

Texas↗
USGS2004

Water-level altitudes 2003 and water-level changes in the Chicot, Evangeline, and Jasper aquifers and compaction 1973–2015 in the Chicot and Evangeline aquifers, Houston-Galveston region, Texas

This report is one in an annual series of reports that depicts water-level altitudes and water-level changes in the Chicot, Evangeline, and Jasper aquifers, and compaction in the Chicot and Evangeline aquifers in the Houston-Galveston region. The Houston-Galveston region comprises Harris, Galveston, Fort Bend, Waller, and Montgomery Counties and adjacent parts of Brazoria, Grimes, Walker, San Jacinto, Liberty, and Chambers Counties. The report was prepared in cooperation with the Harris-Galveston Coastal Subsidence District, the City of Houston, and the Fort Bend Subsidence District. For the Chicot and Evangeline aquifers, maps show approximate water-level altitudes in 2003, water-level changes from 2002 to 2003, approximate water-level changes from 1990 to 2003, approximate water-level changes from 1977 to 2003, and lines of zero water-level change for selected intervals beginning with 1977–82 (figs. 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 - 10 ). For the Jasper aquifer, maps show approximate water-level altitudes in 2003 and water-level changes from 2002 to 2003 and 2000 to 2003 (figs. 11 , 12 , 13 ). The report also contains a map showing borehole extensometer (well equipped with compaction monitor) site locations ( fig. 14 ) and graphs showing measured compaction of subsurface material at these sites from 1973 or later to 2002 ( fig. 15 ). The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has published annual reports of water-level altitudes and water-level changes for the Chicot and Evangeline aquifers in the Houston-Galveston region since 1979; and annual reports of same for the Fort Bend subregion (Fort Bend County and adjacent areas) since 1990. The USGS published its first water-level-altitude map for the Jasper aquifer in the greater Houston area (primarily Montgomery County) in 2001. The 2003 altitude and change maps for the three aquifers are included in this report.

Texas↗
USGS2013

Local-area-enhanced, 2.5-meter resolution natural-color and color-infrared satellite-image mosaics of the Nalbandon mineral district in Afghanistan: Chapter L in Local-area-enhanced, high-resolution natural-color and color-infrared satellite-image mosaics of mineral districts in Afghanistan

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Defense Task Force for Business and Stability Operations, prepared databases for mineral-resource target areas in Afghanistan. The purpose of the databases is to (1) provide useful data to ground-survey crews for use in performing detailed assessments of the areas and (2) provide useful information to private investors who are considering investment in a particular area for development of its natural resources. The set of satellite-image mosaics provided in this Data Series (DS) is one such database. Although airborne digital color-infrared imagery was acquired for parts of Afghanistan in 2006, the image data have radiometric variations that preclude their use in creating a consistent image mosaic for geologic analysis. Consequently, image mosaics were created using ALOS (Advanced Land Observation Satellite; renamed Daichi) satellite images, whose radiometry has been well determined (Saunier, 2007a,b). This part of the DS consists of the locally enhanced ALOS image mosaics for the Nalbandon mineral district, which has lead and zinc deposits. ALOS was launched on January 24, 2006, and provides multispectral images from the AVNIR (Advanced Visible and Near-Infrared Radiometer) sensor in blue (420–500 nanometer, nm), green (520–600 nm), red (610–690 nm), and near-infrared (760–890 nm) wavelength bands with an 8-bit dynamic range and a 10-meter (m) ground resolution. The satellite also provides a panchromatic band image from the PRISM (Panchromatic Remote-sensing Instrument for Stereo Mapping) sensor (520–770 nm) with the same dynamic range but a 2.5-m ground resolution. The image products in this DS incorporate copyrighted data provided by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (©JAXA, 2007, 2008, 2010), but the image processing has altered the original pixel structure and all image values of the JAXA ALOS data, such that original image values cannot be recreated from this DS. As such, the DS products match JAXA criteria for value added products, which are not copyrighted, according to the ALOS end-user license agreement. The selection criteria for the satellite imagery used in our mosaics were images having (1) the highest solar-elevation angles (near summer solstice) and (2) the least cloud, cloud-shadow, and snow cover. The multispectral and panchromatic data were orthorectified with ALOS satellite ephemeris data, a process which is not as accurate as orthorectification using digital elevation models (DEMs); however, the ALOS processing center did not have a precise DEM. As a result, the multispectral and panchromatic image pairs were generally not well registered to the surface and not coregistered well enough to perform resolution enhancement on the multispectral data. Therefore, it was necessary to (1) register the 10-m AVNIR multispectral imagery to a well-controlled Landsat image base, (2) mosaic the individual multispectral images into a single image of the entire area of interest, (3) register each panchromatic image to the registered multispectral image base, and (4) mosaic the individual panchromatic images into a single image of the entire area of interest. The two image-registration steps were facilitated using an automated control-point algorithm developed by the USGS that allows image coregistration to within one picture element. Before rectification, the multispectral and panchromatic images were converted to radiance values and then to relative-reflectance values using the methods described in Davis (2006). Mosaicking the multispectral or panchromatic images started with the image with the highest sun-elevation angle and the least atmospheric scattering, which was treated as the standard image. The band-reflectance values of all other multispectral or panchromatic images within the area were sequentially adjusted to that of the standard image by determining band-reflectance correspondence between overlapping images using linear least-squares analysis. The resolution of the multispectral image mosaic was then increased to that of the panchromatic image mosaic using the SPARKLE logic, which is described in Davis (2006). Each of the four-band images within the resolution-enhanced image mosaic was individually subjected to a local-area histogram stretch algorithm (described in Davis, 2007), which stretches each band’s picture element based on the digital values of all picture elements within a 500-m radius. The final databases, which are provided in this DS, are three-band, color-composite images of the local-area-enhanced, natural-color data (the blue, green, and red wavelength bands) and color-infrared data (the green, red, and near-infrared wavelength bands). All image data were initially projected and maintained in Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) map projection using the target area’s local zone (41 for Nalbandon) and the WGS84 datum. The final image mosaics were subdivided into ten overlapping tiles or quadrants because of the large size of the target area. The ten image tiles (or quadrants) for the Nalbandon area are provided as embedded geotiff images, which can be read and used by most geographic information system (GIS) and image-processing software. The tiff world files (tfw) are provided, even though they are generally not needed for most software to read an embedded geotiff image. Within the Nalbandon study area, two subareas were designated for detailed field investigations (that is, the Nalbandon District and Gharghananaw-Gawmazar subareas); these subareas were extracted from the area’s image mosaic and are provided as separate embedded geotiff images.

Nalbandon Mineral District↗
USGS2013

Local-area-enhanced, 2.5-meter resolution natural-color and color-infrared satellite-image mosaics of the Herat mineral district in Afghanistan: Chapter T in Local-area-enhanced, high-resolution natural-color and color-infrared satellite-image mosaics of mineral districts in Afghanistan

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Defense Task Force for Business and Stability Operations, prepared databases for mineral-resource target areas in Afghanistan. The purpose of the databases is to (1) provide useful data to ground-survey crews for use in performing detailed assessments of the areas and (2) provide useful information to private investors who are considering investment in a particular area for development of its natural resources. The set of satellite-image mosaics provided in this Data Series (DS) is one such database. Although airborne digital color-infrared imagery was acquired for parts of Afghanistan in 2006, the image data have radiometric variations that preclude their use in creating a consistent image mosaic for geologic analysis. Consequently, image mosaics were created using ALOS (Advanced Land Observation Satellite; renamed Daichi) satellite images, whose radiometry has been well determined (Saunier, 2007a,b). This part of the DS consists of the locally enhanced ALOS image mosaics for the Herat mineral district, which has barium and limestone deposits. ALOS was launched on January 24, 2006, and provides multispectral images from the AVNIR (Advanced Visible and Near-Infrared Radiometer) sensor in blue (420–500 nanometer, nm), green (520–600 nm), red (610–690 nm), and near-infrared (760–890 nm) wavelength bands with an 8-bit dynamic range and a 10-meter (m) ground resolution. The satellite also provides a panchromatic band image from the PRISM (Panchromatic Remote-sensing Instrument for Stereo Mapping) sensor (520–770 nm) with the same dynamic range but a 2.5-m ground resolution. The image products in this DS incorporate copyrighted data provided by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (©JAXA,2007,2008,2009), but the image processing has altered the original pixel structure and all image values of the JAXA ALOS data, such that original image values cannot be recreated from this DS. As such, the DS products match JAXA criteria for value added products, which are not copyrighted, according to the ALOS end-user license agreement. The selection criteria for the satellite imagery used in our mosaics were images having (1) the highest solar-elevation angles (near summer solstice) and (2) the least cloud, cloud-shadow, and snow cover. The multispectral and panchromatic data were orthorectified with ALOS satellite ephemeris data, a process which is not as accurate as orthorectification using digital elevation models (DEMs); however, the ALOS processing center did not have a precise DEM. As a result, the multispectral and panchromatic image pairs were generally not well registered to the surface and not coregistered well enough to perform resolution enhancement on the multispectral data. For this particular area, PRISM image orthorectification was performed by the Alaska Satellite Facility, applying its photogrammetric software to PRISM stereo images with vertical control points obtained from the digital elevation database produced by the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (Farr and others, 2007) and horizontal adjustments based on a controlled Landsat image base (Davis, 2006). The 10-m AVNIR multispectral imagery was then coregistered to the orthorectified PRISM images and individual multispectral and panchromatic images were mosaicked into single images of the entire area of interest. The image coregistration was facilitated using an automated control-point algorithm developed by the USGS that allows image coregistration to within one picture element. Before rectification, the multispectral and panchromatic images were converted to radiance values and then to relative-reflectance values using the methods described in Davis (2006). Mosaicking the multispectral or panchromatic images started with the image with the highest sun-elevation angle and the least atmospheric scattering, which was treated as the standard image. The band-reflectance values of all other multispectral or panchromatic images within the area were sequentially adjusted to that of the standard image by determining band-reflectance correspondence between overlapping images using linear least-squares analysis. The resolution of the multispectral image mosaic was then increased to that of the panchromatic image mosaic using the SPARKLE logic, which is described in Davis (2006). Each of the four-band images within the resolution-enhanced image mosaic was individually subjected to a local-area histogram stretch algorithm (described in Davis, 2007), which stretches each band's picture element based on the digital values of all picture elements within a 1,000-m radius. The final databases, which are provided in this DS, are three-band, color-composite images of the local-area-enhanced, natural-color data (the blue, green, and red wavelength bands) and color-infrared data (the green, red, and near-infrared wavelength bands). All image data were initially projected and maintained in Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) map projection using the target area's local zone (41 for Herat) and the WGS84 datum. The final image mosaics were subdivided into eight overlapping tiles or quadrants because of the large size of the target area. The eight image tiles (or quadrants) for the Herat area are provided as embedded geotiff images, which can be read and used by most geographic information system (GIS) and image-processing software. The tiff world files (tfw) are provided, even though they are generally not needed for most software to read an embedded geotiff image. Within the Herat study area, one subarea was designated for detailed field investigations (that is, the Barium-Limestone subarea); this subarea was extracted from the area's image mosaic and is provided as separate embedded geotiff images.

Herat↗