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USGS1973

Use of finite-difference arrays of observation wells to estimate evapotranspiration from ground water in the Arkansas River Valley, Colorado

A method to determine evapotranspiration from ground water was tested at four sites in the flood plain of the Arkansas River in Colorado. Approximate ground-water budgets were obtained by analyzing water-level data from observation wells installed in five-point arrays. The analyses were based on finite difference approximations of the differential equation describing ground-water flow. Data from the sites were divided into two groups by season. It was assumed that water levels during the dormant season were unaffected by evapotranspiration of ground water or by recharge, collectively termed 'accretion.' Regression analyses of these data were made to provide an equation for separating the effects of changes in aquifer storage and of aquifer heterogeneity from those due to accretion during the growing season. The data collected during the growing season were thus analyzed to determine accretion.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1974

Geologic and hydrologic control of chloride contamination in aquifers at Brunswick, Glynn County, Georgia

Water from a brackish-water zone (1,050-1,350 ft) has concentrations as high as 2,150 milligrams per liter chloride, and concentrations are suspected to be higher than 3,000 milligrams per liter chloride. This brackish water has been identified as the source of the water that contaminates the upper and lower fresh-water-bearing zones of the principal artesian aquifer. The confining unit separating the fresh and brackish water seems to contain breaks that act as vertical conduits for the movement of brackish water into the fresh-water zones of the aquifer. Faults are suspected to be responsible for the breaks in the confining unit. The rate of upward movement of brackish water seems to be a function of the rate of water-level decline in the aquifer. There are two main areas of brackish-water intrusion. One area is near Bay and Prince Streets, and the other area is near Reynolds and Q Streets. Successive maps showing chloride ion concentration trace the movement of the chloride front northward in the Bay Street area at the rate of about 350 feet per year toward the center of pumping. An average of about 400 gallons per minute of water containing 2,000 milligrams per liter chloride invaded the upper water-bearing zone between December 1962 and December 1966. A like amount may have entered the lower water-bearing zone. Maximum chloride concentration in the upper water-bearing zone is 1,540 milligrams per liter in the Bay Street area and 640 milligrams per liter in the Reynolds Street area. In a few areas, where individual wells have been drilled deep enough to penetrate the confining unit over the brackish-water zone, the well furnishes a conduit for brackish water to recharge the fresh-water aquifer. Plugging the lower part of these wells usually reduces the chloride concentration of the water. The chloride concentration of water in the principal artesian aquifer can probably be reduced by use of interceptor wells, relief wells, or well-field spacing. Interceptor wells would prevent laterally moving brackish water from contaminating a well field. A relief well would tap and withdraw poor quality water from only the brackish-water zone to lower the head in that zone and decrease the rate of leakage into the fresh-water aquifer. Wider spacing of wells would prevent the development of a deep cone of depression and the steeper hydraulic gradients that accompany it. The brackish water pumped by the interceptor or relief wells could be used for industry, aquaculture, recreation, or for other processes in which the chloride content is not critical.

Georgia↗
USGS1974

An appraisal of potential water salvage in the Lake McMillan Delta area, Eddy County, New Mexico

The Lake McMillan delta area is located between Artesia and Lake McMillan on the Pecos River in Eddy County, N. Mex. Alluvium, which is more than 200 feet thick in places, is the principal water-bearing formation and is part of the 'shallow aquifer' of the Roswell basin. Recharge to the shallow aquifer is by infiltration from the Pecos River, by irrigation water, by precipitation, and by ground water that moves into the area. Discharge from the shallow aquifer is by wells, by transpiration from phreatophytes, and by evaporation from swampy areas. Saltcedar growth in the area increased during the study period from about 13,700 acres in 1952 to about 17,100 acres in 1960, a 25-percent increase. Most of this increase was in the areal-density range of zero to 30 percent. The estimated average transpiration of phreatophytes in the Artesia to Lake McMillan reach is about 29,000 acre-feet of water per year from ground-water sources. In the reach from Artesia to the Rio Pefiasco, where the regional water table is above the Pecos River, saltcedar eradication might salvage from 10,000 to 20,000 acre-feet of water per year for use downstream. From the Rio Pefiasco to Lake McMillan the river is perched above the water table; therefore, elimination of the saltcedar probably would not increase flow in the river, nor would drains be effective. Clearing in this reach, however, might increase the flow at Major Johnson Springs below Lake McMillan. Floodways through this reach would eliminate some evapotranspiration but might increase the amount of sediment deposited by floodwaters in bake McMillan.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1975

Summary of floods in the United States during 1969

The most outstanding floods in the United States during 1969 are described in chronological order. The areas most seriously affected by flooding were: Central and southern California (January and February); the upper Midwestern States of North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois (April); north-central Ohio (July); Mississippi, Alabama, and Virginia (Hurricane Camille in August); and Florida and Georgia (September). Severe floods in central and southern California were caused by three storms during January and February. At least 60 lives were lost. Homes and property were destroyed or damaged, by rainstorms, floods, and mudflows. Many floods approached or exceeded the maximum known. The severe flood damage was due partly to recent home construction in floodprone areas. The April floods in the upper Midwestern States of North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois were expected because of a large accumulation of snow containing as much as 8 inches of water. Flood-protection procedures, together with cool temperatures, had a mitigating effect on the flood. The floods were the largest since the late 1800's, and their recurrence intervals exceeded 50 years at many of the gaged sites. Estimates of flood damage were about $147 million. More than a million acres of rich agricultural land were inundated, thousands of culverts and bridges were washed out, 23,000 people were forced from their homes and 11 lives were lost in the six-State flood area. Intense rainstorms and wind with gusts as much as 100 miles per hour, July 4-5, caused record floods in north-central Ohio, July 4-8. The storm and floods left trees uprooted, more than $66 million in damage, and 41 deaths. In many places the floods were the largest of record. Together with the wind and rainstorm, the hydrologic conditions were among the most significant experienced in the area. Hurricane Camille was the most intense hurricane on record to enter the United States mainland. It struck the Mississippi-Alabama coast on August 18, with tidal waves as high as 25 feet above mean sea level and wind velocities more than 190 miles per hour. Tidal wave and flood damage was about $1.3 billion. In Mississippi the known dead totaled 139 and 76 other persons were missing. The hurricane intensity decreased as it moved inland until it merged with severe rainstorms over the Appalachian mountains. The intensified hurricane then caused record-breaking floods of streams in a 50-mile-wide area as it moved eastward from Sulphur Springs, W. Va., to Fredericksburg, Va. Total flood damage in Virginia exceeded $116 million. There were 113 known deaths, 102 injuries, and 39 people missing. A tropical storm that was nearly stationary over northwest Florida for about 48 hours, September 20-23 produced record rains and floods. Near Quincy, Fla., the total rainfall for the period exceeded 20 inches. On Little River near Quincy, the peak discharge was nearly twice the previous maximum of record and was three times that of a 50-year flood. Flood damage to agricultural lands, bridges, culverts, and roads was about $1.7 million.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1974

Influence of recharge basins on the hydrology of Nassau and Suffolk Counties, Long Island, New York

An investigation of recharge basins on Long Island was made by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Nassau County Department of Public Works, Suffolk County Department of Environmental Control, and Suffolk County Water Authority. The major objectives of the study were to (1) catalog basic physical data on the recharge basins in use on Long Island, (2) measure quality and quantity of precipitation and inflow, (3) measure infiltration rates at selected recharge basins, and (4) evaluate regional effects of recharge basins on the hydrologic system of Long Island. The area of study consists of Nassau and Suffolk Counties -- about 1,370 square miles -- in eastern Long Island, N.Y. Recharge basins, numbering more than 2,100 on Long Island in 1969, are open pits in moderately to highly permeable sand and gravel deposits. These pits are used to dispose of storm runoff from residential, industrial, and commercial areas, and from highways, by infiltration of the water through the bottom and sides of the basins. The hydrology of three recharge basins on Long Island -- Westbury, Syosset, and Deer Park basins -- was studied. The precipitation-inflow relation showed that the average percentages of precipitation flowing into each basin were roughly equivalent to the average percentages of impervious areas in the total drainage areas of the basins. Average percentages of precipitation flowing into the basins as direct runoff were 12 percent at the Westbury basin, 10 percent at the Syosset basin, and 7 percent at the Deer Park basin. Numerous open-bottomed storm-water catch basins at Syosset and Deer Park reduced the proportion of inflow to those basins, as compared with the Westbury basin, which has only a few open-bottomed catch basins. Inflow hydrographs for each basin typify the usual urban runoff hydrograph -- steeply rising and falling limbs, sharp peaks, and short time bases. Unit hydrographs for the Westbury and the Syosset basins are not expected to change; however, the unit hydrograph for the Deer Park basin is expected to broaden somewhat as a result of additional future house construction within the drainage area. Infiltration rates averaged 0.9 fph (feet per hour) for 63 storms between July 1967 and May 1970 at the Westbury recharge basin, 0.8 fph for 22 storms from July 1969 to September 1970 at the Syosset recharge basin, and 0.2 fph for 24 storms from March to September 1970 at the Deer Park recharge basin. Low infiltration rates at Deer Park resulted mainly from (1) a high percentage of eroded silt, clay, and organic debris washed in from construction sites in the drainage area, which partly filled the interstices of the natural deposits, and (2) a lack of a well-developed plant-root system on the floor of the younger basin, which would have kept the soil zone more permeable. The apparent rate of movement of storm water through the unsaturated zone below each basin averaged 5.5 fph at Westbury, 3.7 fph at Syosset, and 3.1 fph at Deer Park. The rates of movement for storms during the warm months (April through October) were slightly higher than average, probably because the recharging water was warmer than it was during the rest of the year, and therefore, was slightly less viscous. On the average, a 1-inch rainfall resulted in a peak rise of the water table directly below each basin of 0.5 foot; a 2-inch rainfall resulted in a peak rise of about 2 feet. The mound commonly dissipated within 1 to 4 days at Westbury, 7 days to more than 15 days at Syosset, and 1 to 3 days at Deer Park, depending on the magnitude of the peak buildup. Average annual ground-water recharge was estimated to be 6.4 acre-feet at the Westbury recharge basin, 10.3 acre-feet at the Syosset recharge basin, and 29.6 acre-feet at the Deer Park recharge basin. Chemical composition of precipitation at Westbury, Syosset, and Deer Park drainage areas was similar:

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1974

Ground water in the Corvallis-Albany area, central Willamette Valley, Oregon

The Corvallis-Albany area is part of the alluvial plain that lies between the Cascade and Coast Ranges in the central Willamette Valley in northwestern Oregon. As used in this report, the Corvallis-Albany area consists of approximately 210 square miles and includes a part of the lower foothills of the Coast and Cascade Ranges. Volcanic and marine sedimentary units exposed in the foothills range in age from Eocene to Oligocene or Miocene. The volcanic rocks are primarily pillow lavas and basalt flows, which yield only small quantities of water generally adequate for domestic and stock use. Marine-deposited sandstone, siltstone, and shale of the older sedimentary units are fine grained, poorly permeable, and generally yield small volumes of water to wells. In the valley plain the older units are overlain by Pleistocene and Holocene alluvial deposits. The alluvial deposits (sand and gravel) of the valley plain contain the most productive aquifers in the area and are considered to be the only units feasible for large-scale development of ground-water supplies. Aquifers in the area are recharged principally by direct infiltration of precipitation. Most of the precipitation (about 38 in. per yr avg) occurs during late autumn and winter. Ground water is discharged naturally from the area by seepage and spring flow to streams, by evapotranspiration, by underflow, and artificially through wells. During 1971 the seasonal decline of water levels from winter to late summer averaged about 10 feet for the alluvial deposits. The seasonal change of storage in that year was estimated to be about 130,000 acre-feet. Of this volume, about 14,000 acre-feet was pumped from wells; the rest (about 116,000 acre-feet) was discharged through seeps and springs by evapotranspiration. The difference between pumpage and natural discharge indicates that a great quantity of additional water is available for development. The storage capacity of the alluvial aquifers in the area is estimated to be about 750,000 acre-feet between depths of 10 and 100 feet. Ground water from the alluvial deposits is chemically suitable for all uses, as is most of the water from perched-water bodies in the older sedimentary and volcanic rocks. However, the mineral content of water from the older sedimentary rocks, particularly from deeper producing zones in the valley plain, is greater than that from the alluvial deposits. Locally, some of the water from the older rocks is too saline for general use. Analysis of water samples for coliform bacteria indicates that ground-water pollution exists in parts of the Corvallis-Albany area. Further study is necessary to document fully the nature and extent of pollution.

Oregon↗
USGS1974

Availability of ground water in the lower Pawcatuck River basin, Rhode Island

The lower Pawcatuck River basin in southwestern Rhode Island is an area of about 169 square miles underlain by crystalline bedrock over which lies a relatively thin mantle of glacial till and stratified drift. Stratified drift, consisting dominantly of sand and gravel, occurs in irregularly shaped linear deposits that are generally less than a mile wide and less than 125 feet thick; these deposits are found along the Pawcatuck River, its tributaries, and abandoned preglacial channels. Deposits of stratified sand and gravel constitute the principal aquifer in the lower Pawcatuck basin and the only one capable of sustaining yields of 100 gallons per minute or more to individual wells. Water available for development in this aquifer consists of water in storage--potential ground-water runoff to streams--plus infiltration that can be induced from streams. Minimum annual ground-water runoff from the sand and gravel aquifer is calculated to be at least 1.17 cubic feet per second per square mile, or 0.76 million gallons per day per square mile. Potential recharge by induced infiltration is estimated to range from about 250 to 600 gallons per day per linear foot of streambed for the principal streams. In most areas, induced infiltration from streams constitutes the major source of water potentially available for development by wells. Because subsurface hydraulic connection in the sand and gravel aquifer is poor in several places, the deposits are conveniently divisible into several ground-water reservoirs. The potential yield from five of the most promising ground-water reservoirs is evaluated by means of mathematical models. Results indicate that continuous withdrawals ranging from 1.3 to 10.3 million gallons per day, and totaling 31 million gallons per day, are obtainable from these reservoirs. Larger yields may be recovered by different well placement, spacing, construction and development, pumping practice, and so forth. Withdrawals at the rates indicated will reduce streamflow downstream from pumping centers but generally will not result in streams going dry, provided the water is returned to the basin. Export of water from the basin will require careful consideration of the effects of such withdrawals on low streamflow. Export from the Pawcatuck basin of 27 million gallons per day, estimated to be available from ground-water reservoirs in the upper Pawcatuck basin, in addition to 37.5 million gallons per day available in the lower Pawcatuck basin, will markedly reduce low streamflow. The 90-percent duration flow of the Pawcatuck River at Westerly would be reduced from 75 million gallons per day to perhaps as little as 21 million gallons per day. The chemical quality of water from both the sand and gravel aquifer and associated streams is suitable for most purposes. The water is soft, slightly acidic, and typically has a dissolved-solids content of less than 75 milligrams per liter. Some treatment may be required locally for removal of iron and manganese to meet recommended standards of the U.S. Public Health Service for drinking water.

Rhode Island↗
USGS1973

Cost analysis of ground-water supplies in the North Atlantic region, 1970

The cost of municipal and industrial ground water (or, more specifically, large supplies of ground water) at the wellhead in the North Atlantic Region in 1970 generally ranged from 1.5 to 5 cents per thousand gallons. Water from crystalline rocks and shale is relatively expensive. Water from sandstone is less so. Costs of water from sands and gravels in glaciated areas and from Coastal Plain sediments range from moderate to very low. In carbonate rocks costs range from low to fairly high. The cost of ground water at the wellhead is low in areas of productive aquifers, but owing to the cost of connecting pipe, costs increase significantly in multiple-well fields. In the North Atlantic Region, development of small to moderate supplies of ground water may offer favorable cost alternatives to planners, but large supplies of ground water for delivery to one point cannot generally be developed inexpensively. Well fields in the less productive aquifers may be limited by costs to 1 or 2 million gallons a day, but in the more favorable aquifers development of several tens of millions of gallons a day may be practicable and inexpensive. Cost evaluations presented cannot be applied to any one specific well or specific site because yields of wells in any one place will depend on the local geologic and hydrologic conditions; however, with such cost adjustments as may be necessary, the methodology presented should have wide applicability. Data given show the cost of water at the wellhead based on the average yield of several wells. The cost of water delivered by a well field includes costs of connecting pipe and of wells that have the yields and spacings specified. Cost of transport of water from the well field to point of consumption and possible cost of treatment are not evaluated. In the methodology employed, costs of drilling and testing, pumping equipment, engineering for the well field, amortization at 5% percent interest, maintenance, and cost of power are considered. The report includes an analysis of test drilling costs leading to a production well field. The discussion shows that test drilling is a relatively low cost item and that more than a minimum of test holes in a previously unexplored area is, above all, simple insurance in keeping down costs and may easily result in final lower costs for the system. Use of the jet drill for testing is considered short sighted and may result in higher total costs and possibly failure to discover good aquifers. Economic development of ground water supplies will depend on obtaining qualified hydrologic and engineering advice, on carrying out adequate test drilling, and on utilizing high-quality (at times, more costly) material.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1975

Geohydrologic reconnaissance of the upper Potomac River basin

The upper Potomac River basin, in the central Appalachian region in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia, is a humid temperate region of diverse fractured rocks. Three geohydrologic terranes, which underlie large parts of the basin, are described in terms of their aquifer characteristics and of the magnitude and duration of their base runoff: (1) fractured rock having a thin regolith, (2) fractured rock having a thick regolith, and (3) carbonate rock. Crystalline rock in the mountainous part of the Blue Ridge province and shale with tight sandstone in the folded Appalachians are covered with thin regolith. Water is stored in and moves through fairly unmodified fractures. Average transmissivity (T) is estimated to be 150 feet squared per day, and average storage coefficient (S), 0.005. Base runoff declines rapidly from its high levels during spring and is poorly sustained during the summer season of high evapotranspiration. The rocks in this geohydrologic terrane are the least effective in the basin for the development of water supplies and as a source of dry-weather streamflow. Crystalline and sedimentary rocks in the Piedmont province and in the lowland part of the Blue Ridge province are covered with thick regolith. Water is stored in and moves through both the regolith and the underlying fractured rock. Estimated average values for aquifer characteristics are T, 200 feet squared per day, and S, 0.01. Base runoff is better sustained in this terrane than in the thin-regolith terrane and on the average .is about twice as great. Carbonate rock, in which fractures have been widened selectively by solution, especially near streams, has estimated average aquifer characteristics of T, 500 feet squared per day, and S, 0.03-0.04. This rock is the most effective in the basin in terms of water supply and base runoff. Where its fractures have not been widened by solution, the carbonate rock is a fractured-rock aquifer much like the noncarbonate rock. At low values the frequency of specific capacities of wells is much the same in all rocks in the basin, but high values of specific capacity are as much as 10 times more frequent in carbonate rock than in noncarbonate rock. Nearly all the large springs and high-capacity wells in the basin are in carbonate rock. Base runoff from the carbonate rock is better sustained during dry weather and on the average is about three times as great as base runoff from fractured rock having a thin regolith. The potential role of these water-bearing terranes in water management probably lies in the local development of large water supplies from the carbonate rock and in the possible manipulation of underground storage for such purposes as providing space for artificial recharge of ground water and providing ground water to be used for the augmentation of low streamflow. The chief water-quality problems in the basin--acidic mine-drainage water in the western part of the basin, local highly mineralized ground water, and the high nitrate content of ground water in some of the densely populated parts of the basin--would probably have little adverse affect on the use of ground water for low-flow augmentation.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1975

Digital-simulation and projection of water-level declines in basalt aquifers of the Odessa-Lind area, east-central Washington

A digital computer program using finite-difference techniques simulates an intensively pumped, multilayered basalt-aquifer system near Odessa. The aquifers now developed are in the upper 1,000 feet of a regionally extensive series of southwesterly dipping basalt flows of the Columbia River Group. Most of the aquifers are confined. Those in the depth range of about 500 to 1,000 feet are the chief source of ground water pumped from irrigation wells. Transmissivity of these aquifers ranges from less than 2,700 feet squared per day to more than 40,000 feet squared per day, and storage coefficients range from 0.0015 to 0.006. Shallower aquifers are generally much less permeable, but they are a source of recharge to deeper aquifers with lower artesian heads; vertical leakage occurs along joints in the basalt and down uncased wells, which short circuit the aquifer system. For model analysis, the deeper, pumped aquifers were grouped and treated as a single layer with drawdown-dependent leakage from an overlying confining layer. Verification of the model was achieved primarily by closely matching observed pumpage-related head declines ranging from about 10 feet to more than 40 feet over the 4-year period from March 1967 to March 1971. Projected average annual rates of decline in the Odessa-Lind area during the 14-year period from March 1967 to March 1981 are: from 1 to 9 feet per year if pumpage is maintained at the 1970 rate of 117,000 acre-feet per year; or, from 3 to 33 feet per year if 1970 pumpage is increased to 233,000 acre-feet per year, which includes 116,000 acre-feet per year covered by water-right applications held in abeyance. In each case, projected drawdown on the northeast side of a major ground-water barrier is about double that on the southwest side because of differences in transmissivity and storage coefficient and in sources of recharge.

Washington↗
USGS1977

Hydrologic changes after logging in two small Oregon coastal watersheds

Effects of clearcut, cable logging on the hydrologic characteristics of a small coastal stream in Oregon indicate an average 181-percent increase in sediment yield over a 7-year postlogging period. Annual runoff and high-flow volumes increased 19 and 1.1 inches (480 and 28 mm), respectively, after logging in the watershed. Clearcutting in small, spaced patches in another watershed resulted in some increase in water and sediment yields, but the increase was not statistically significant. Average monthly April-October maximum water temperatures increased significantly in the principal stream of both the clearcut and 'patch-cut' watersheds. Hydrologic characteristics of both streams generally appear to be returning to prelogging conditions (19731.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1976

Hydrology and environmental aspects of Erie Canal (1817-99)

As the first major water project in the United States, the old Erie Canal provides an example of the hydrological and environmental consequences of water development. The available record shows that the project aroused environmental fears that the canal might be impaired by the adverse hydrologic effects of land development induced by the canal. Water requirements proved greater than anticipated, and problems of floods and hydraulic inefficiencies beset navigation throughout its history. The Erie Canal proved the practicality of major hydraulic works to the extent that operations and maintenance could cope with the burdens of deficiencies in design. The weight of prior experience that upland streams, such as the Potomac and Mohawk Rivers, had proved unsatisfactory for dependable navigation, led to a decision to build an independent canal which freed the location from the constraints of river channels and made possible a cross-country water route directly to Lake Erie. The decision on dimensioning the canal prism--chiefly width and depth-involved balance between a fear of building too small and thus not achieving the economic potentials, and a fear of building too expensively. The constraints proved effective, and for the first part of its history the revenues collected were sufficient to repay all costs. So great was the economic advantage of the canal that the rising trend in traffic soon induced an enlargement of the canal cross section, based upon a new but riskier objective-build as large as the projected trend in toll revenues would finance. The increased revenues did not materialize. Water supplies were a primary concern for both the planners and the operators of the canal. Water required for lockage, although the most obvious to the planners, proved to be a relatively minor item compared with the amounts of water that were required to compensate for leakage through the bed and banks of the canal. Leakage amounted to about 8 inches of depth per day. The total quantities of water taken into the canal made it the largest hydraulic undertaking of the 19th century in the United States. The diversion of water to factories that were attracted to the canal as a source of hydraulic power added to the water requirements. Although new feeders and reservoirs to extend the supply were built throughout the canal's history, these efforts to cope with water shortages were never fully successful. The primary cause of the persistent deficiencies in supply was the method used to estimate the available flow of the. streams during extended dry spells. Ad hoc, spot measurements of streamflow consistently led to overestimation of the dependable supply. There was a persistent hydraulic problem as well. The cross section of the canal, especially when obstructed by many barges, was inadequate to convey the large volumes of water needed to maintain navigable depths over the long distances between feeders. The major flood problem was caused by cross-drainage--the small creeks that crossed under the canal in culverts. Washout of culverts was a never-ending source of sporadic disruption of traffic of 1 or 2 weeks duration. Repairs and replacements could not cope with the problem created by deficiency in information ,about the flood potentials of 'the small streams. A fortunate occurrence of severe floods in 1817 at the start of canal construction provided such clear and persuasive evidence of the flood potentials of the, Mohawk River, which the canal followed for about 110 miles, so as to compel putting the canal at a high level in difficult terrain. Environmental anxieties, broached early in the planning of the canal, centered on the potentially adverse effects of land development and deforestation on floods, water supply, and erosion. The flow of rivers did not decrease as originally feared. Land use did not increase the intensity of flooding and so endanger the canal. Viewed first as a conveyor of pure water from Lake

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1975

Chemical quality and temperature of water in Flaming Gorge Reservoir, Wyoming and Utah, and the effect of the reservoir on the Green River

The major tributaries to Flaming Gorge Reservoir contribute an average of about 97 percent of the total streamflow and 82 percent of the total load of dissolved solids. The Green River is the largest tributary, and for the 1957-72 water years it contributed 81 percent of the total streamflow and 70 percent of the total load of dissolved solids. The principal constituents in the tributary streamflow are calcium and sulfate during periods of lowest flow and calcium and bicarbonate during periods of highest flow. Flaming Gorge Dam was closed in November 1962, and the most significant load changes of chemical constituents due to the net effect of inflow, outflow, leaching, and chemical precipitation in the reservoir have been load changes of sulfate and bicarbonate. The average increase of dissolved load of sulfate in the reservoir for the 1969-72 water years was 110,000 tons (99,790 t) per year, which was 40,000 tons (36,287 t) per year less than for the 1963-66 water years. The average decrease of dissolved load of bicarbonate in the reservoir for 1969-72 was 40,000 tons (36,287 t) per year, which was the same as the decrease for 1963-66. Anaerobic conditions were observed in the deep, uncirculated part of the reservoir near the dam during the 1971 and 1972 water years, and anaerobic or near-anaerobic conditions were observed near the confluence of the Blacks Fork and Green River during the summers of 1971 and 1972. The water in Flaming Gorge Reservoir is in three distinct layers, and the upper two layers (the epilimnion and the metalimnion) mixed twice during each of the 1971-72 water years. The two circulation periods were in the spring and fall. The water in the deepest layer (the hypolimnion) did not mix with the waters of the upper zones because the density difference was too great and because the deep, narrow shape of the basin probably inhibits mixing. The depletion of flow in the Green River downstream from Flaming Gorge Dam between closure of the dam and the end of the 1972 water year was 4,500,000 acre-feet (5,550.8 hm 3 ). Of this total, water stored in the reservoir accounted for 3,500,000 acre-feet (4,317.2 hm 3 ), evaporation consumed 700,000 acre-feet (863.4 hm 3 ), and 300,000 acre-feet (370.0 hm 3 ) went into bank storage. The net load of dissolved solids added to the river system during the 1963-72 water years, due to leaching and chemical precipitation, was 1,730,000 tons (1,569,421 t). The leaching rate was 200,000 tons (181,436 t) per year for 1963-68,115,000 tons (104,326 t) per year for 1969-70 and 150,000 tons (136,077 t) per year for 1971-72. It appears that the leaching rates should decrease in the future since the reservoir level in 1972 was near maximum pool level. The most significant increase in concentration of the chemical constituents in the water below the reservoir involved the sulfate ion, which increased from about 115 milligrams per litre (42 percent of the anions) in 1957 to about 200 milligrams per litre (54 percent), in 1972. But the highest concentration, about 290 milligrams per litre (58 percent), occurred in 1963, immediately after closure of the dam. Prior to closure of the dam, the average monthly temperature of the Green River below the damsite ranged from 0 ° C to 19.5 ° C as compared to 3.5 ° C to 10.0 ° C after closure.

Utah↗
USGS1976

An appraisal of ground water for irrigation in the Appleton area, west-central Minnesota

Supplemental irrigation of well-drained sandy soils has prompted an evaluation of ground water in the Appleton area. Glacial drift aquifers are the largest source of ground water. The surficial outwash sand and gravel is the most readily available and the most areally extensive drift aquifer, and it underlies much of the sandy soil area. Saturated thickness of the outwash is more than 80 feet (24 m) in places, and potential well yields may exceed 1,200 gal/min (76 1/s) in some areas. In about 17 percent of the area, yields of more than 300 gal/min (19 1/s) are obtainable. Recharge to the outwash aquifer occurs primarily during the spring thaw and averages about 5 inches (12.7 cm) annually. Most discharge from the aquifer appears as base flow in the Pomme de Terre River. Despite dissolved-solids concentrations ranging from 280 to 1,350 mg/1, the water is chemically suitable for irrigation. Mathematical models of a part of the aquifer were made to evaluate the effects of 20 successive years of ground-water withdrawal for three irrigation-development patterns. It was estimated that the present annual withdrawal rate of 1,410 acre-ft (1.74 hm 3 ) would result in water-level declines of less than 3 feet (0.9 m). However, annual withdrawals of 8,450 acre-ft (10.4 hm 3 ) would cause aquifer dewatering and decreased well yields in some places. After a new state of equilibrium was established in response to withdrawals, most of the withdrawal would be supplied by diverted base flow from the Pomme de Terre River.

Minnesota↗
USGS1976

Ground water in the Harrisburg-Halsey area, southern Willamette Valley, Oregon

The Harrisburg-Halsey area lies between the Cascade and Coast Ranges in the southern Willamette Valley in northwestern Oregon. The area consists of approximately 350 square miles (910 km 2 ) and includes a part of the lower foothills of the Coast and Cascade Ranges. Volcanic and marine sedimentary units exposed in the foothills range in age from Eocene to Miocene. The volcanic rocks are primarily of dacitic and andesitic composition and yield only small quantities of water that are generally adequate only for domestic and stock use. The alluvial deposits (sand and gravel) of the valley plain contain the more productive aquifers in the area and yield most of the water that is pumped from wells in the area. Aquifers in the area are recharged principally by direct infiltration of precipitation. Most of the precipitation, which averages about 40 in. (1,020 mm) per year occurs during late autumn and winter. During 1974 the seasonal decline of water levels from winter to late summer averaged about 10 ft 13 m) for the alluvial deposits. The seasonal change of storage for 1974 was estimated to be about 170,000 acre-ft (210 hm3). Of this volume, about 14,300 acre-ft (17.6 hm 3 ) was pumped from wells; the rest, about 156,000 acre-ft (190 hm 3 ), was discharged naturally by seepage and spring flow to streams and by evapotranspiration. The difference between pumpage and natural discharge indicates that a large quantity of additional water is available for development. The storage capacity of the alluvial aquifers is estimated to be about 800,000 acre-ft (1,000 hm 3 ) in the zone 10-100 ft (3-30 m} below land surface. Ground water from the alluvial deposits is chemically suitable for irrigation and other uses, as is most of the water obtained from perched-water bodies in the older sedimentary and volcanic rocks. However, the mineral concentration of water from the older sedimentary rocks, particularly from deeper producing zones beneath the valley plain, is greater than that of water from the alluvial deposits. Locally, some of the water from the older rocks is too saline for general use. Water samples from domestic wells were analyzed for fecal coliform bacteria. Although these analyses did not indicate ground-water pollution, further study would be required to establish that none exists in the area.

Oregon↗
USGS1977

Elements needed in design of a ground-water-quality monitoring network in the Hawaiian Islands

The elements needed in the design of a ground-water-quality monitoring network in the Hawaiian Islands are described and summarized. The elements are given by geohydrologie units which represent areas where there are similarities in the occurrence of ground water or in the geology pertinent to the occurrence of ground water. The goal is to establish a network of observation points to inventory and maintain surveillance of existing and potential sources of pollution of ground water. Of principal concern to Hawaii's environment is pollution of the potable ground-water supplies and of the near-shore recreational waters, the latter by the discharge of polluted ground water. Existing monitoring efforts, although intensive in many areas, are not adequate because they are geared more toward (1) the detection and surveillance of pollutants in the conveyances of ground water instead of in the sources of ground water and (2) the monitoring of extensive nonpoint sources of pollution instead of from discrete point sources.

Water Supply Paper↗