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At least 1,729 records · Page 96Linked to original sources
USGS1973

Improvement of trout streams in Wisconsin by augmenting low flows with ground water

Approximately 2 cubic feet per second of ground water were introduced into the Little Plover River in 1968 when natural streamflow ranged from 3 to 4 cubic feet per second. These augmentation flows were retained undiminished through the 2-mile reach of stream monitored. Maximum stream temperatures were reduced as much as 5?F (3?C) at the augmentation site during the test period, although changes became insignificant more than 1 mile downstream. Maximum temperatures might be reduced as much as 10?F (6?C) during critical periods, based on estimates using a stream temperature model developed as part of the study. During critical periods significant temperature improvement may extend 2 miles or more downstream. Changes in minimum DO (dissolved oxygen) levels were slight, primarily because of the high natural DO levels occurring during the test period. Criteria for considering other streams for flow augmentation are developed on the basis of the observed hydrologic responses in the Little Plover River. Augmentation flows of nearly 2? cubic feet per second of ground water were introduced into the headwater reach of Black Earth Creek from the end of June through mid-October 1969. Streamflow ranged from 1 to 2 cubic feet per second at the augmentation site, and the average flow at the gaging station at Black Earth, approximately 8 miles downstream, ranged from 25 to 50 cubic feet per second. Augmentation flows were retained through the 8-mile reach of stream. Temperature of the augmentation flow as it entered the stream ranged from 60? to 70?F (about 16? to 21?C) during the test period, and minimum stream temperatures were raised 5?F (3?C) or more at the augmentation site, with changes extending from 2 to 3 miles downstream. Augmentation during critical periods could maintain stream temperatures between 40? and 70?F (4? and 21?C) through most of the study reach. DO levels were increased by as much as 2 milligrams per liter or more below the augmentation site, although the improvement diminished to approximately 1 milligram per liter downstream in the problem reach. During critical periods DO improvement in the problem reach would be somewhat greater. Flow augmentation would not be necessary during normal conditions in either of the streams studied. Critical DO and temperature levels are not known to occur in the Little Plover River. Since the construction of secondary treatment facilities at the Cross Plains sewage-treatment plant, critical DO levels are no longer expected to be a problem in Black Earth Creek. However, results from this study may be used to estimate the effectiveness of flow augmentation in other streams in similar areas in which critical DO or temperature levels may occur.

Wisconsin↗
USGS1973

Ground water in the Eugene-Springfield area, southern Willamette Valley, Oregon

The cities of Eugene and Springfield and their outlying suburban and rural districts constitute an area of rapid population growth where progressively greater volumes of ground water are being required for irrigation and industrial and public supplies. The area is also one of diverse geologic and hydrologic conditions. As used in this report, the Eugene-Springfield area covers about 450 square miles and includes a part of the lower foothills of the Coast and Cascade Ranges and a strip of the main valley plain of the southern Willamette Valley. Volcanic and sedimentary rock units exposed in the foothills range in age from Eocene to Miocene. In the main valley plain the older units are overlain by Pleistocene and Holocene alluvial deposits. Marine-deposited sandstone, siltstone, shale, and mudstone of the older sedimentary units are fine grained and poorly permeable and yield water slowly to wells. The volcanic rocks, primarily of dacitic and andesitic composition, yield small quantities of water that are generally adequate only for domestic use. The alluvial deposits (sand and gravel) of the valley plain (central lowland) contain the most productive aquifers in the area and are considered to be the only ground-water reservoir for which large-scale development of ground-water supplies is feasible. Aquifers in the area are recharged principally by direct infiltration of precipitation. Most of the precipitation, which averages about 4C inches per year, occurs during late autumn and winter. Minimum recharge by infiltration of precipitation to the alluvial aquifers beneath the valley plain is estimated to be about 100,000 acre-feet. Ground water is discharged naturally from the central lowland by seepage and spring flow to small streams, by subsurface outflow to adjacent areas, and by evapotranspiration. Storage capacity of the central lowland in the Eugene-Springfield area is estimated to be about 2.1 million acre-feet in the zone 10-150 feet below land surface. The quantity of ground water available annually from this area is far greater than the 23,000 acre-feet pumped for all uses in 1968. This pumpage was about 23 percent of the perennial yield (100,000 acre-ft), and about 77,000 acre-feet of water was left available for additional withdrawal. If annual withdrawals of water were increased to 100,000 acre-feet per year, the levels in the ground-water reservoir would be lowered. Once new equilibriums are established, increased withdrawals could be accommodated without progressive losses in aquifer storage or excessive losses in flow of the larger streams. Ground water from the alluvial deposits of the valley plain is chemically suitable for irrigation and other uses, as is most of the water obtained from perched-water bodies in the sedimentary and volcanic rocks. However, the mineral content of water from the older sedimentary rocks, particularly from deeper producing zones, is greater than the mineral content of water from the alluvial deposits. Locally, some of the water from the older rocks is too saline for most uses. Increased use of ground water may result in certain problems pertaining to waste-disposal practices, local overdraft of aquifers, well interference, and well construction. Present data are adequate to evaluate some of the factors relating to foreseeable problems but allow only tentative conclusions to be drawn about other factors, which include local direction of flow, rate of ground-water movement, and areas of possible ground-water contamination. Additional information obtained through systematic study will be needed to deal with these problems.

Oregon↗
USGS1971

Subsurface waste disposal by means of wells - A selective annotated bibliography

Subsurface waste disposal by means of wells is the practice of using drilled wells to inject unwanted substances into underground rock formations. The use of wells for this purpose is not a new idea. As long ago as the end of the last century, it was common practice to drill wells for the express purpose of draining swamps and small lakes to reclaim the land for agricultural purposes. A few decades later in the 1920's and 1930's many oil companies began using injection wells to dispose of oil-field brines and to repressurize oil reservoirs. During World War II, the Atomic Energy Commission began using injection wells to dispose of certain types of radioactive wastes. More recently, injection wells have been drilled to dispose of a variety of byproducts of industrial processes. The number of such wells has increased rapidly since Congress passed the Clean Streams Act of 1966, which restricted the discharge of waste into surface waters. Many scientists and public officials question the propriety of using the term "disposal" when referring to the underground injection of wastes. Their reasons are that underground injection is not, as many advocates claim, "a complete and final answer" to the waste-disposal problem. Rather, it is merely a process wherein the injected wastes are committed to the subsurface with uncertainty as to their ultimate fate or limits of confinement. In effect, the wastes, undiminished and unchanged, are removed from the custody of man and placed in the custody of nature. Although the concept of waste-injection wells is relatively simple, the effects of waste injection can be very complex, particularly when dealing with the exotic and complex components of some industrial wastes. Besides the physical forces of injection, there are many varied interactions between the injected wastes and the materials within the injection zone. Because these changes occur out of sight in the subsurface, they are difficult to assess and not generally understood. In addition, the various aspects of the problem involve a wide spectrum of science and engineering. Hence, articles published on the subject are widely dispersed in the technical and scientific literature.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1972

Evaluation of yields of wells in consolidated rocks, Virginia to Maine

In the North Atlantic region, Virginia to Maine, yields of industrial and municipal wells are the most reliable indicators of the water-yielding potential of consolidated rocks. Generally, such wells represent efforts to develop a maximum supply of water, they are 350 to 500 feet deep, and they utilize 60 to 150 feet of drawdown. In multiple-well developments, average yields of wells per 100 feet of drawdown range from less than 75 gallons per minute in the least favorable rocks such as shale or granite gneiss to as much as 300 gallons per minute in limestone. In any one rock type, substantially greater than average sustained yields are possible in structurally deformed areas or in areas where recharge potential is especially favorable.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1974

Water availability in central Wisconsin — An area of near-surface crystalline rock

Available ground water in much of central Wisconsin is limited to discharge through wells of low yield. Aquifers that yield small amounts of water to wells include fractured crystalline rock at or near surface in the eastern part of the area, sandstone overlying crystalline rock in the southern and western parts, and glacial till that covers the area north and west of the Marshfield moraine. Many wells in crystalline rock yield less than 2 gpm (gallons per minute). About 90 percent of the wells in sandstone and most wells in glacial till yield 5-9.0 gpm. Outwash sand and gravel in segments of some bedrock channels, however, yield large supplies of water to wells. Wells in surficial sand and gravel in the lower valleys of major tributaries to the Wisconsin River yield as much as 450 gpm. Sand and gravel in segments of bedrock channels, many of which were delineated during this project, are covered by till or alluvium; wells in these sand and gravel deposits yield 100-400 gpm. Induced recharge to buried aquifers by infiltration of water through the beds of overlying streams is feasible at six sites within 8 miles of Marshfield. Infiltration through the streambed of Little Eau Pleine River about 7 miles northeast of Marshfield was about 200 gpm when the ground-water level was lowered temporarily. Additional recharge through ponding is possible at other sites. Streamflows in the area generally are not dependable sources of municipal or industrial supplies without storage. Nearly one-third of the flows measured in August 1969 were less than 0.01 cubic foot per second per square mile. Annual flows, however, would provide adequate within-year storage. Chemical quality of water in the area is suitable for most uses. Ground water is hard, contains objectionable concentrations of iron, and locally is high in nitrate content. Surface water has an average dissolved-solids content of about 100 milligrams per liter.

Wisconsin↗
USGS1975

Selenium in waters in and adjacent to the Kendrick Project, Natrona County, Wyoming

Selenium in concentrations exceeding the maximum limit, 0.01 milligrams per liter or 10 micrograms per liter, recommended by the U.S. Public Health Service in 'Drinking-Water Standards, 1962,' Public Health Pub. 956, is present in waters in areas near Casper, Wyo. Some streams containing selenium flow into the North Platte River upstream from several municipalities that obtain water from the river and the alluvium along the river. The area of this investigation includes about 725 square miles in Natrona County in central Wyoming. Study effort was most intensive within the area bounded by the North Platte River, Casper Creek, and Casper Canal, the approximate boundaries of the Kendrick irrigation project. Geologic formations in the area contain selenium that may have been derived from deposits of seleniferous material or from volcanic emanations brought down by rain. Formations older than Cretaceous age were not considered as important sources of selenium in waters of the area, because no irrigation water is applied to areas underlain by these rocks. The selenium concentration in 82 samples of Cretaceous rocks ranged from less than 10 to 4,200 ?g/kg (micrograms per kilogram of sample); no correlation was found between selenium concentration and the depth at which the sample was collected. Of four samples of Tertiary rocks analyzed, three contained no selenium and one had a selenium concentration of 40 ?g/kg. The selenium concentration in 93 samples of Quaternary rocks ranged from less than 10 to 52.0 ?g/kg, and the highest selenium concentration was generally found at depths less than 4 feet. No geologic formation has consistently high concentrations of selenium, but high concentrations were found at points throughout the study area. Probably the rocks in any locality could be the source of selenium in the water in the surrounding vicinity. The selenium concentration in water from some wells fluctuates widely. It is concluded that the selenium concentrations in the ground water in these areas have not reached a state of equilibrium in the aquifer. It is possible that such nonequilibrium conditions exist in aquifers throughout much of the area. If so, statements in this report concerning- trends of selenium concentration in ground water are somewhat speculative.Poison Spring Creek, Poison Spider Creek, Oregon Trail Drain, and Casper Creek are the principal tributaries that contribute selenium to the North Platte River. The selenium load, expressed in pounds per day, in Poison Spring Creek and Poison Spider Creek decreased slightly during the first year of sampling and increased slightly during the second year of sampling. The selenium load in Oregon Trail Drain is greatest in late winter and early spring during the period of low flow; the selenium load in Casper Creek varies, but shows no correlation with season and little correlation with stream discharge. The North Platte River above and below the irrigation project had consistently low selenium concentrations, 10 ?g/l (micrograms per liter) or less, in the period April 1968 through June 1969. The total selenium load contributed to the North Platte River from tributaries in the study area is almost undetectable after mixing with the river water. From the fall of 1968 .to the spring of 1969, results of water sampling in areas influenced by irrigation show that the selenium concentration increased at 29 percent of the locations (average net increase of 64 ?g/l), decreased at 34 percent of the locations (average net decrease of 80 ?g/l), and had little (10 ?g/l or .less) or no change at 37 percent of the locations. As a comparison, results of water sampling in areas not influenced by irrigation showed that the selenium concentration increased at 2 percent of the locations (average net increase of 30 ?g/l), decreased at 26 percent of the locations (average net decrease of 30?g/l), and had little or no change at 72 percent of the locations. It is not possible to

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1973

Water resources of the Big Sioux River Valley near Sioux Falls, South Dakota

The major sources of water in the Big Sioux River valley between Sioux Falls and Dell Rapids, S.Dak., are the Big Sioux River and the glacial outwash aquifer beneath the flood plain. The river and the aquifer are hydraulically connected. The Big Sioux River has an average annual discharge of 246 cubic feet per second, on the average exceeds bankfull stage every 2.3 years, and has moderate basin storage.. Periods of low flow are common in the late summer, fall, and winter. A low flow of 0.1 cubic foot per second has been recorded. The outwash aquifer is composed of permeable sand, sand and gravel, and some boulders. The aquifer underlies an area of 33 square miles and commonly has a saturated thickness of less than 30 feet. Aquifer tests and measurements of streamflow indicate a rate of streambed infiltration of about 6 gallons per day per square foot. Analyses of streambed samples and interpretations of lithology from an electric log indicate that the streambed sediments in the diversion channel of the Big Sioux River consist largely of relatively impermeable silts and clays. Under normal climatic conditions, most of the water pumped by the city of Sioux Falls is water that entered the aquifer by streambed infiltration. To evaluate the importance of the aquifer in the hydrologic system, both an electrical analog model and a digital model were programmed for storage depletion alone. These models were used to determine the water-level declines in the aquifer that would result from 1 year of withdrawal at a rate of 9-10 million gallons per day. Both models indicated that the existing well field can yield water at that rate for more than 1 year. The analog model was also used to determine the maximum average daily yield of the aquifer-river system for a 2-year period modeled for the minimum recorded stream discharge and for streambed infiltration as the only recharge. The maximum average yield under these conditions would be less than 24 million gallons per day. Most of the water pumped during this period would be from aquifer storage. Water from the river is generally less mineralized, softer, and easier to treat than ground water. Water pumped from wells near the river is similar in quality to the river water, but does not have the objectionable odors or tastes often present in water from the river.

South Dakota↗
USGS1973

Characteristics of water quality and streamflow, Passaic River basin above Little Falls, New Jersey

The findings of a problem-oriented river-system investigation of the water-quality and streamflow characteristics of the Passaic River above Little Falls, N.J. (drainage area 762 sq mi) are described. Information on streamflow duration, time-of-travel measurements, and analyses of chemical, biochemical, and physical water quality are summarized. This information is used to define relations between water quality, streamflow, geology, and environmental development in the basin's hydrologic system. The existence, nature, and magnitude of long-term trends in stream quality--as measured by dissolved solids, chloride, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, ammonia, nitrate, and turbidity--and in streamflow toward either improvement or deterioration are appraised at selected sites within the river system. The quality of streams in the upper Passaic River basin in northeastern New Jersey is shown to be deteriorating with time. For example, biochemical oxygen demand, an indirect measure of organic matter in a stream, is increasing at most stream-quality sampling sites. Similarly, the dissolved-solids content, a measure of inorganic matter, also is increasing. These observations suggest that the Passaic River system is being used more and more as a medium for the disposal of industrial and municipal waste waters. Dissolved oxygen, an essential ingredient for the natural purification of streams receiving waste discharges, is undersaturated (that is, below theoretical solubility levels) at all sampling sites and is decreasing with time at most sites. This is another indication of the general deterioration of stream quality in the upper basin. It also indicates that the ability of the river system to receive, transport, and assimilate wastes, although exceeded now only for short periods during the summer months, may be exceeded more continually in the future if present trends hold. Decreasing ratios of ammonia to nitrate in a downstream direction on the main stem Passaic River suggests that nitrification (the biochemical conversion of ammonia to nitrate) as well as microbiological decomposition of organic matter (waste waters) is contributing to the continued and increasing undersaturation of dissolved oxygen in the river system. Passaic River streams are grouped into five general regions of isochemical quality on the basis of predominant constituents and dissolved-solids content during low flows. The predominant cations in all but one region are calcium and magnesium (exceeding 50 percent of total cations) ; in that region, where man's activities probably have altered the natural stream waters, the percentage of sodium and potassium equals that of calcium and magnesium. In two of the five regions, the predominant anion is bicarbonate; a combination of sulfate, chloride, and nitrate is predominant in the other three regions. Dissolved-solids content during low flows generally ranges from 100 to 600 milligrams per liter. Several time-of-travel measurements within the basin are reported. These data provide reasonable estimates of the time required for soluble contaminants to pass through particular parts of the river system. For example, the peak concentration of a contaminant injected into the river system at Chatham during extreme low flow would be expected to travel to Little Falls, about 31 miles, in about 13 days; but at medium flow, in about 5 days.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1973

A national study of the streamflow data-collection program

The streamflow data program of the U.S. Geological Survey was evaluated in a nationwide study during 1970. The principal elements of the study were (1) establishing the objectives and goals of the program, (2) analyzing all available data to determine which of the goals have already been met, (3) considering alternate means of meeting the remaining goals, and (4) identifying the elements which should be included in the future program.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1973

Hydrogeology of glacial drift, Mesabi Iron Range, northeastern Minnesota

Stratified fluvial sediments occur within the glacial drift at many places in the Mesabi Iron Range area. These sediments, which are important aquifers, occur extensively between the three main till units. The thickest and most extensive aquifer consists of glaciofluvial sediments that lie between the surficial till and the middle till unit, the bouldery till. Thickness of the glaciofluvial sediments at this stratigraphic interval is greater than 50 feet in much of the area, and transmissivity is greater than 100,000 gallons per day per foot in some places. Glaciofluvial sediments underlying the bouldery till occur largely in the western half of the area. These sediments are generally less than 50 feet thick, and transmissivity is generally less than 50,000 gallons per day per foot. Surficial glaciofluvial sediments are a source of ground water for high-yield wells only in the eastern part of the area in the vicinity of the Biwabik bedrock valley. Thickness of these sediments is greater than 100 feet in some places, but transmissivity is generally less than 50,000 gallons per day per foot. Practical sustained yield of aquifers in glacial drift is estimated to be as much as 40 million gallons per day from known aquifers. Assuming that the ratio of area underlain by aquifer to total area is constant for the study area (about 20 percent where mapped in detail), as much as 80 million gallons per day could be developed from glacial-drift aquifers.

Minnesota↗
USGS1973

Generalization of stream-temperature data in Washington

The effect of water temperature on the ecosystem of streams necessitates an analysis of various physical characteristics that influence stream temperatures. This study was conducted to determine (1) the effective relations that define site-to-site variation in stream temperatures, (2) equations and methods to estimate stream temperatures at sites where little or no data are now available, and (3) a procedure to evaluate the effect of water impoundment on natural stream temperatures. Statistical multiple-regression analyses were used to develop equations for relations between stream temperatures and topographic and climatic characteristics of the drainage basins. Multiple-regression techniques, generally, produced more accurate equations for estimating temperatures of streams in western Washington than for those in eastern Washington. A standard error of estimate was used to show how precisely stream temperatures may be defined by air-temperature and topographic drainage-basin characteristics. Of 24 original parameters tested, 15 were found effective to determine the equations of one or more of the 15 stream-temperature characteristics. Effects of holding reservoirs on downstream water temperatures may be evaluated by the use of harmonic curves of probable maximum and minimum stream temperatures. By examples, it was shown that (1) below a hydroelectric-power dam winter-minimum river temperatures were raised and occur 9 days later than they would under natural conditions; and (2) below a flood-control dam, which also augments natural flows during low-flow periods, summer-minimum river temperatures were raised and occur 4 days earlier than they would under natural conditions.

Water Supply Paper↗