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USGS2008

Ground-water quality data in the Southern Sacramento Valley, California, 2005 — Results from the California GAMA Program

Ground-water quality in the approximately 2,100 square-mile Southern Sacramento Valley study unit (SSACV) was investigated from March to June 2005 as part of the Statewide Basin Assessment Project of Ground-Water Ambient Monitoring and Assessment (GAMA) Program. This study was designed to provide a spatially unbiased assessment of raw ground-water quality within SSACV, as well as a statistically consistent basis for comparing water quality throughout California. Samples were collected from 83 wells in Placer, Sacramento, Solano, Sutter, and Yolo Counties. Sixty-seven of the wells were selected using a randomized grid-based method to provide statistical representation of the study area. Sixteen of the wells were sampled to evaluate changes in water chemistry along ground-water flow paths. Four additional samples were collected at one of the wells to evaluate water-quality changes with depth. The GAMA Statewide Basin Assessment project was developed in response to the Ground-Water Quality Monitoring Act of 2001 and is being conducted by the California State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB) in collaboration with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL). The ground-water samples were analyzed for a large number of man-made organic constituents (volatile organic compounds [VOCs], pesticides and pesticide degradates, pharmaceutical compounds, and wastewater-indicator constituents), constituents of special interest (perchlorate, N -nitrosodimethylamine [NDMA], and 1,2,3-trichloropropane [1,2,3-TCP]), naturally occurring inorganic constituents (nutrients, major and minor ions, and trace elements), radioactive constituents, and microbial indicators. Naturally occurring isotopes (tritium, and carbon-14, and stable isotopes of hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon), and dissolved noble gases also were measured to help identify the source and age of the sampled ground water. Quality-control samples (blanks, replicates, matrix spikes) were collected at ten percent of the wells, and the results for these samples were used to evaluate the quality of the data for the ground-water samples. Assessment of the quality-control data resulted in censoring of less than 0.03 percent of the analyses of ground-water samples. This study did not evaluate the quality of water delivered to consumers; after withdrawal from the ground, water typically is treated, disinfected, and (or) blended with other waters to maintain acceptable water quality. Regulatory thresholds apply to treated water that is served to the consumer, not to raw ground water. However, to provide some context for the results, concentrations of constituents measured in the raw ground water were compared with health-based thresholds established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and California Department of Health Services (CADHS) (Maximum Contaminant Levels [MCLs], notification levels [NLs], or lifetime health advisories [HA-Ls]) and thresholds established for aesthetic concerns (Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels [SMCLs]). All wells were sampled for organic constituents and selected general water quality parameters; subsets of wells were sampled for inorganic constituents, nutrients, and radioactive constituents. Volatile organic compounds were detected in 49 out of 83 wells sampled and pesticides were detected in 34 out of 82 wells; all detections were below health-based thresholds, with the exception of 1 detection of 1,2,3-trichloropropane above a NL. Of the 43 wells sampled for trace elements, 27 had no detections of a trace element above a health-based threshold and 16 had at least one detection above. Of the 18 trace elements with health-based thresholds, 3 (arsenic, barium, and boron) were detected at concentrations higher an MCL. Of the 43 wells sampled for nitrate, only 1 well had a detection above the MCL. Twenty wells were sampled for radioactive constituents; only 1 (radon-222) was measured at activities higher than the proposed MCL. Radon-222 was detected below the threshold in 7 wells and above the threshold in 13 wells. SMCLs have been established for nine constituents or parameters analyzed in SSACV. Six were measured at levels higher than an SMCL: chloride, iron, manganese, pH, specific conductance, and total dissolved solids. Chloride, iron, manganese, pH, and total dissolved solids were measured in 43 wells: 27 wells had no measurements above a threshold and 16 wells had a measurement above a threshold. Specific conductance was measured in 83 wells. In 68 wells, specific conductance was measured lower than the threshold and in 15 wells it was measured above the threshold.

California↗

USGS1999

Selected elements and organic chemicals in bed sediment and fish tissue of the Tualatin River basin, Oregon, 1992-96

A variety of elements and organic compounds have entered the environment as a result of human activities. Such substances find their way to aquatic sediments from direct discharges to waterways, atmospheric emissions, and runoff. Some of these chemicals are known to harm fish or wildlife, either by direct toxicity, by reducing viability, or by limiting reproductive success. In aquatic systems, sediments become the eventual sink for most of these chemicals. Analyzing the sediments provides a first step in a chemical inventory that can lead to an assessment of potential biological impacts (Kennicutt and others, 1994). Many elements (iron, aluminum, calcium, and others) enter the environment from the natural weathering of rock. Additional amounts of elements have been contributed by human activities such as mining, metals production and processing, fossil fuel combustion, municipal waste incineration, and transportationrelated sources. The environmental presence of some elements, such as lead and mercury, is almost entirely due to human activity. Lead is often associated with the use of leaded gasoline and from the manufacture and disposal of lead storage batteries. Mercury was used historically in a variety of industrial processes and as a pesticide. Nriagu and Pacyna (1998) concluded that human activity is the “most important element in the global biogeochemical cycling of the trace metals.” The number of organic compounds in existence and their total production has more than tripled in the last century. Many of these compounds enter the environment directly as pesticides; others are inadvertently discharged. Some organic compounds have natural sources. Three general classes of organic compounds will be discussed: organochlorine compounds, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and phthalates. Almost all organochlorine compounds are manmade. Many are pesticides that were used widely in the 1950s–60s (DDT and chlordanes, for example). Use of most organochlorine pesticides was restricted or banned in the United States in the 1970s–80s. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are also organochlorine compounds; they were used for a variety of applications, but most commonly as insulators in electrical transformers and other equipment. In general, organochlorine compounds degrade very slowly in the environment and therefore, are routinely found in environmental samples, despite the fact that they are no longer used in the United States. They are hydrophobic that is they do not dissolve readily in water and, in aquatic systems, are almost exclusively associated with sediments or tissue. Because these compounds cause a variety of adverse health effects in wildlife, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has listed many as priority pollutants. Organochlorine compounds also have been implicated as endocrine disrupters— chemicals that can interfere with the normal function of hormones. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are found in sediments throughout the world (Hites and others, 1980). Their presence is thought to be primarily anthropogenic. PAHs occur naturally in petroleum products and also are produced during combustion. They enter the environment from fuel spills, tar coatings, coal and other fossil fuel usage, road dust, and from the atmospheric deposition of combustion products (Prahl and others, 1984; Wakeham and others, 1980). Urban areas often have high concentrations of PAHs because of transportation-related sources (vehicle exhaust, paving materials, and releases of fuel or oil). Natural sources, such as forest fires, may contribute small amounts of PAHs. Several PAHs are known carcinogens (benzo[a]pyrene, for example); 16 are listed as USEPA priority pollutants. Phthalate compounds are often associated with urban areas. They are used in a wide variety of industrial applications and in inks, adhesives, resins, and as plasticizers (chemicals that increase the flexibility of plastics). In aquatic systems, phthalates are found mostly in sediments where they degrade very slowly. Phthalates are thought to be endocrine disrupters; Jobling and others (1995) found that some phthalates were weakly estrogenic. USEPA considers some phthalates to be possible carcinogens. This report describes the results of a reconnaissance survey of elements and organic compounds found in bed sediment and fish tissue in streams of the Tualatin River Basin. The basin is in northwestern Oregon to the west of the Portland metropolitan area (fig. 1). The Tualatin River flows for about 80 miles, draining an area of about 712 square miles, before it enters the Willamette River. Land use in the basin changes from mostly forested in the headwaters, to mixed forest and agriculture, to predominately urban. The basin supports a growing population of more than 350,000 people, most of whom live in lower parts of the basin. Water quality in the Tualatin River and its tributaries is expected to be affected by the increasing urbanization of the basin.

Oregon↗

USGS2017

Oregon OCS seafloor mapping: Selected lease blocks relevant to renewable energy

In 2014 the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) entered into Intra-agency agreement M13PG00037 to map an area of the Oregon Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) off of Coos Bay, Oregon, under consideration for development of a floating wind energy farm. The BOEM requires seafloor mapping and site characterization studies in order to evaluate the impact of seafloor and sub-seafloor conditions on the installation, operation, and structural integrity of proposed renewable energy projects, as well as to assess the potential effects of construction and operations on archaeological resources. The mission of the USGS is to provide geologic, topographic, and hydrologic information that contributes to the wise management of the Nation's natural resources and that promotes the health, safety, and well being of the people. This information consists of maps, databases, and descriptions and analyses of the water, energy, and mineral resources, land surface, underlying geologic structure, and dynamic processes of the earth. For the Oregon OCS study, the USGS acquired multibeam echo sounder and seafloor video data surrounding the proposed development site, which is 95 km2 in area and 15 miles offshore from Coos Bay. The development site had been surveyed by Solmar Hydro Inc. in 2013 under a contract with WindFloat Pacific. The USGS subsequently produced a bathymetry digital elevation model and a backscatter intensity grid that were merged with existing data collected by the contractor. The merged grids were published along with visual observations of benthic geo-habitat from the video data in an associated USGS data release (Cochrane and others, 2015). This report includes the results of analysis of the video data conducted by Oregon State University and the geo-habitat interpretation of the multibeam echo sounder (MBES) data conducted by the USGS. MBES data was published in Cochrane and others (2015). Interpretive data associated with this publication is published in Cochrane (2017). All the data is provided as geographic information system (GIS) files that contain both Esri ArcGIS geotiffs or shapefiles. For those who do not own the full suite of Esri GIS and mapping software, the data can be read using Esri ArcReader, a free viewer that is available at http://www.esri.com/software/arcgis/arcreader/index.html (last accessed August 29, 2016). Web services, which consist of standard implementations of ArcGIS representational state transfer (REST) Service and Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) GIS web map service (WMS), also are available for all published GIS data. Web services were created using an ArcGIS service definition file, resulting in data layers that are symbolized as shown on the associated report figures. Both the ArcGIS REST Service and OGC WMS Service include all the individual GIS layers. Data layers are bundled together in a map-area web service; however, each layer can be symbolized and accessed individually after the web service is ingested into a desktop application or web map. Web services enable users to download and view data, as well as to easily add data to their own workflows, using any browser-enabled, standalone or mobile device. Though the surficial substrate is dominated by combinations of mud and sand substrate, a diverse assortment of geomorphologic features are related to geologic processes—one anticlinal ridge where bedrock is exposed, a slump and associated scarps, and pockmarks. Pockmarks are seen in the form of fields of small pockmarks, a lineation of large pockmarks with methanogenic carbonates, and areas of large pockmarks that have merged into larger variously shaped depressions. The slump appears to have originated at the pockmark lineation. Video-supervised numerical analysis of the MBES backscatter intensity data and vector ruggedness derived from the MBES bathymetry data was used to produce a substrate model called a seafloor character raster for the study area. The seafloor character raster consists of three substrate classes: soft-flat areas, hard-flat areas, and hard-rugged areas. A Coastal and Marine Ecological Classification Standard (CMECS) geoform and substrate map was also produced using depth, slope, and benthic position index classes to delineate geoform boundaries. Seven geoforms were identified in this process, including ridges, slump scars, slump deposits, basins, and pockmarks. Statistical analysis of the video data for correlations between substrate, depth, and invertebrate assemblages resulted in the identification of seven biomes: three hard-bottom biomes and four softbottom biomes. A similar analysis of vertebrate observations produces a similar set of biomes. The biome between-group dissimilarity was very high or high. Invertebrates alone represent most of the structure of the whole benthic community into different assemblages. A biotope map was generated using the seafloor character raster and the substrate and depth values of the biomes. Hard substrate biotopes were small in size and were located primarily on the ridge and in pockmarks along the pockmark lineation. The soft-bottom bitopes consisted of large contiguous areas delimited by isobaths.

Open-File Report↗

USGS1985

Selected hydrologic data from wells in the East Shore area of the Great Salt Lake, Utah, 1985

This report contains hydrologic data for wells collected in the East Shore area of the Great Salt Lake, Utah. It includes water-quality data, discharge measurements, water levels, and drillers* logs. The East Shore area (plate 1) includes about 430 square miles, bounded by the Wasatch Range on the east and the Great Salt Lake on the west. The first section line north of the town of Willard is the northern boundary, whereas the Davis-Salt Lake County line is the southern boundary. Most of the data in this report were collected from 1983 to 1985 by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Utah Department of Natural Resources, Division of Water Rights. Some of the data were previously published by Smith (1961) or Bolke and Waddell (1972). The purpose of this report is to provide ground-water data for use by officials managing water resources and the general public and to supplement an interpretive report for the area that will be published later. From tables 1- 5 of this report, determinations can be made for the depth to water-bearing units, water levels in wells, well yields, or chemical quality of ground water at the sites shown on plate 1.

Utah↗

USGS2024

No evidence hunting bait increases American black bear population growth in Maine, USA

American black bear ( Ursus americanus ) populations are increasing throughout much of North America. Use of multiple harvest methods, including hunting over bait, is intended to increase harvest success rates to meet harvest and population management objectives. However, black bear population growth can be influenced by food availability, and some speculate the use of bait may inadvertently increase bear abundance through food resource supplementation. We collected hair from black bears captured from 2005–2019 and a selection of potential food items, including those used as bait from 3 study areas in Maine, USA, with different levels of human influence. We used stable isotope analysis of the black bear hair and food item samples to evaluate the contribution of different identified food groups to the diet of individual bears. We found no evidence that greater contribution of human food resources, including bait, increased the number of cubs per litter for reproductive females or that human foods comprised a greater part of the diet in years when natural food resources were less abundant. Approximately 69% of black bear harvest occurred over bait. We found the probability of reproductive-age females to be harvested increased with average representation of human foods with high carbon enrichment (including bait) in their diet, but the relationship was weak, likely because of sampling constraints. Additionally, the probability of being harvested was greater in years when natural food resources were scarce. We conclude that bait is not available on the landscape in large enough amounts or for a sufficient amount of time in Maine to substantially influence female reproduction. Our results indicate hunting over bait is an effective tool in a state that is attempting to maintain a stable bear population via harvest, and dispels conjecture that hunting over bait may increase cub production and offset the intention of harvest.

Maine↗

USGS2013

Pheromonal bile acid 3-ketopetromyzonol sulfate primes the neuroendocrine system in sea lamprey

Background Vertebrate pheromones are known to prime the endocrine system, especially the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. However, no known pheromone molecule has been shown to modulate directly the synthesis or release of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), the main regulator of the HPG axis. We selected sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) as a model system to determine whether a single pheromone component alters the output of GnRH. Sea lamprey male sex pheromones contain a main component, 7α, 12α, 24-trihydroxy-5α-cholan-3-one 24-sulfate (3 keto-petromyzonol sulfate or 3kPZS), which has been shown to modulate behaviors of mature females. Through a series of experiments, we tested the hypothesis that 3kPZS modulates both synthesis and release of GnRH, and subsequently, HPG output in immature sea lamprey. Results The results showed that natural male pheromone mixtures induced differential steroid responses but facilitated sexual maturation in both sexes of immature animals (χ2 = 5.042, dF = 1, p < 0.05). Exposure to 3kPZS increased plasma 15α-hydroxyprogesterone (15α-P) concentrations (one-way ANOVA, p < 0.05) and brain gene expressions (genes examined: three lamprey (l) GnRH-I transcripts, lGnRH-III, Jun and Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK); one-way ANOVA, p < 0.05), but did not alter the number of GnRH neurons in the hypothalamus in immature animals. In addition, 3kPZS treatments increased lGnRH peptide concentrations in the forebrain and modulated their levels in plasma. Overall, 3kPZS modulation of HPG axis is more pronounced in immature males than in females. Conclusions We conclude that a single male pheromone component primes the HPG axis in immature sea lamprey in a sexually dimorphic manner.

BMC Neuroscience↗

USGS1974

Floods in Indiana: technical manual for estimating their magnitude and frequency

This manual provides methods for estimating the magnitude and frequency of floods on unregulated and unurbanized streams in Indiana that drain at least 15 square miles (38.8 square kilometres). The methods provide the design engineer with a means of estimating flood frequencies without having to analyze the records at individual streamflow sites. The estimating equations in this manual are based on relations between floods of specific return periods and selected watershed characteristics. The most significant factors for estimating flood peaks in Indiana were found to be drainage area and precipitation index. The shape of a watershed was also found very significant in development of the regional equations. Other variables used in the regional equations are physical characteristics that further explain differences in the magnitudes of floods from the watersheds. The regional equations are multivariate regression equations that relate peak discharges of 2-, 5-, 10-, 25-, 50-, and 100-year recurrence intervals to watershed characteristics and are essentially for natural streams. In this study, if 25 percent or more of the drainage area of a stream is above a reservoir, it was considered to be regulated, and flood peaks from it were not included in the analysis unless it could be determined that flood peaks were not materially affected, as in the case of several streams below small water-supply reservoirs. The equations also do not apply to streams that are affected by a high degree of urbanization.

Indiana↗

USGS1976

Redwood National Park studies; data release number 2, Redwood Creek, Humboldt County, and Mill Creek, Del Norte County, California, April 11, 1974-September 30, 1975

An interdisciplinary study has been undertaken in Redwood National Park, Calif., to describe parts of the ecosystems and recent changes in the intensity of erosion and sedimentation, define processes that may alter the natural ecosystems, and assess the impact of recent road construction and timber harvest. This report is the second of a series that will present data collected in this study. Stream-discharge and water-quality data were collected at 53 sampling stations in the Redwood Creek and Mill Creek drainage basins. Measurements included the following variables: Stream stage and discharge; turbidity; sediment; onsite water-quality determinations of temperature, pH , total alkalinity, specific conductance, and dissolved-oxxygen concentration; chemical analyses of water samples for major dissolved solids, selected trace elements, nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic carbon; chemical analyses of bottom sediment for organic carbon and pesticides; bacteria; benthic invertebrates; fish; periphyton; phytoplankton; and seston. Additional data include changes in geometry at 10 stream-channel cross sections along Mill Creek and the distribution of erosional landforms in the Mill Creek drainage basin; quantity and chemical composition of rainwater; and the intragravel-streambed condition at selected stations in the Redwood Creek drainage basin. (Woodard-USGS)

Open-File Report↗

USGS2010

Status and understanding of groundwater quality in the central-eastside San Joaquin Basin, 2006: California GAMA Priority Basin Project

Groundwater quality in the approximately 1,695-square-mile Central Eastside San Joaquin Basin (Central Eastside) study unit was investigated as part of the Priority Basin Project (PBP) of the Groundwater Ambient Monitoring and Assessment (GAMA) Program. The GAMA PBP was developed in response to the California Groundwater Quality Monitoring Act of 2001, and is being conducted by the California State Water Resources Control Board in collaboration with the U.S. Geological Survey and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The GAMA Central Eastside study unit was designed to provide a spatially unbiased assessment of untreated-groundwater quality, as well as a statistically consistent basis for comparing water quality throughout California. During March through June 2006, samples were collected from 78 wells in Stanislaus and Merced Counties, 58 of which were selected using a spatially distributed, randomized grid-based method to provide statistical representation of the study unit (grid wells), and 20 of which were sampled to evaluate changes in water chemistry along groundwater-flow paths (understanding wells). Water-quality data from the California Department of Public Health (CDPH) database also were used for the assessment. An assessment of the current status of the groundwater quality included collecting samples from wells for analysis of anthropogenic constituents such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and pesticides, as well as naturally occurring constituents such as major ions and trace elements. The assessment of status is intended to characterize the quality of untreated-groundwater resources within the primary aquifer system, not the treated drinking water delivered to consumers by water purveyors. The primary aquifer system (hereinafter, primary aquifer) is defined as that part of the aquifer corresponding to the perforation interval of wells listed in the CDPH database for the Central Eastside study unit. The quality of groundwater in shallower or deeper water-bearing zones may differ from that in the primary aquifer; shallower groundwater may be more vulnerable to surficial contamination. The primary aquifer is represented by the grid wells, of which 90 percent had depths to the tops of their perforations of about 80 to 330 feet and depths to bottom of about 100 to 670 feet. Relative-concentrations (sample concentration divided by benchmark concentration) were used as the primary metric for assessing the status of water quality for those constituents that have Federal and (or) California human health or aesthetic benchmarks. A relative-concentration greater than (>) 1.0 indicates a concentration above a benchmark, and less than or equal to (≤) 1.0 indicates a concentration equal to or below a benchmark. For organic and special interest constituents, relative-concentrations were classified as high (>1.0), moderate (≤1.0 and >0.1), or low (≤0.1). For inorganic constituents, relative-concentrations were classified as high (>1.0), moderate (≤1.0 and >0.5), or low (≤0.5). The threshold between low and moderate classifications was lower for organic and special interest constituents than for inorganic constituents because organic constituents generally are less prevalent and have smaller relative-concentrations than inorganic constituents. Grid-based and spatially-weighted approaches, the latter incorporating data from all CDPH wells, were used to evaluate the proportion of the primary aquifer (aquifer-scale proportions) with high, moderate, or low relative-concentrations. For individual constituents or classes of constituents, the aquifer-scale high proportion is the percentage of the area of the study unit having high relative-concentrations within the depth-zones of the primary aquifer. Aquifer-scale moderate and low proportions are defined similarly. Spatially-weighted aquifer-scale high proportions nearly always fell within the 90-percent confidence interval of grid-based aquifer-scale high proportions, indicating that the grid-based approach yielded statistically equivalent results to the spatially-weighted approach incorporating CDPH data. The status assessment for inorganic constituents showed that inorganic constituents (one or more) were high, relative to human-health benchmarks, in 18.0 percent of the primary aquifer, moderate in 44.0 percent, and low in 38.0 percent. Of inorganic constituents with human-health benchmarks, arsenic, vanadium, and nitrate were detected at high relative-concentrations in 15.6 percent, 3.6 percent, and 2.1 percent, respectively, of the primary aquifer. Of inorganic constituents with secondary maximum contaminant levels (SMCL), manganese, iron, and TDS were detected at high relative-concentrations in 4.5 percent, 2.2 percent, and 1.7 percent, respectively, of the primary aquifer. The status assessment for organic constituents showed that organic constituents (one or more) were high, relative to human-health benchmarks, in a smaller proportion of the primary aquifer (1.2 percent) than inorganic constituents (18.0 percent). Organic constituents had moderate relative-concentrations in 14.3 percent, and had low relative-concentrations or were not detected in 84.5 percent, of the primary aquifer. The proportion of the primary aquifer with high relative-concentrations of organic constituents reflected high proportions of the discontinued soil fumigant 1,2-dibromo-3-chlororopane (DBCP; 1.0 percent) and the solvent tetrachloroethene (PCE; 0.2 percent). Most of the organic and special interest constituents detected in groundwater in the Central Eastside study unit have human-health benchmarks. Of the 205 organic and special interest constituents analyzed for, 36 constituents were detected. Of these constituents, 32 were detected only at low relative-concentrations. Four constituents, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, DBCP, and perchlorate, were detected at moderate relative-concentrations in grid wells. Nine organic and special-interest constituents were detected frequently (detected in greater than 10 percent of samples): the trihalomethanes chloroform, bromoform, bromodichloromethane, and dibromochloromethane; the solvent PCE; the herbicides atrazine, simazine, and metolachlor, and special-interest constituent perchlorate. An assessment of understanding of the groundwater quality included sampling of understanding wells, some of which were perforated in shallower or deeper portions of the aquifer system than the primary aquifer, and analysis of correlations of groundwater quality with land use, depth, age classification, and other potential explanatory factors. The understanding assessment indicated that the concentrations of many constituents were related to depth and groundwater age. However, concentrations of individual constituents or constituent classes also were sometimes related to geochemical conditions, lateral position in the flow system, or land use. High and moderate relative-concentrations of uranium, nitrate, and total dissolved solids (TDS) were detected in some wells where the tops of perforations are within the upper 200 feet of the aquifer system. In wells with the depth to the top of perforations below this depth, concentrations were low. A similar pattern occurred for the sum of herbicide concentrations. These vertical water-chemistry patterns are consistent with the hydrogeologic setting, in which return flows from agricultural and urban land use are the major source of recharge, and withdrawals for irrigation and urban supply are the major source of discharge, resulting in substantial vertical components of groundwater flow. The decrease in concentrations of many constituents with depth reflects in part that groundwater gets older with depth. Tritium, helium-isotopes, and carbon-14 data were used to classify the predominant age of groundwater samples into three categories: modern (water that has entered the aquifer in the last 50 years), pre-modern (water that entered the aquifer more than 50 years, up to tens of thousands of years, ago), and mixed (mixtures of waters with modern and pre-modern ages). Uranium, nitrate, and herbicide concentrations were significantly higher in groundwater having modern- and mixed-ages than pre-modern ages, indicating that these constituents may be affected by anthropogenic activities in the last 50 years. Other patterns in the distribution of nitrate, uranium, and TDS are evident. Isotopic and geochemical data are consistent with partial denitrification of nitrate in some reducing groundwaters in the western and deeper parts of the flow system. Uranium and TDS concentrations increase from east to west across the valley, along the direction of regional lateral groundwater flow. High and moderate relative-concentrations of arsenic can be attributed to reductive dissolution of manganese or iron oxides, or to desorption by high pH waters. Arsenic concentrations also increased with increasing depth and groundwater age. High to moderate relative-concentrations of vanadium primarily are related to high pH under oxic conditions. The frequency of detections of DBCP was greater in areas with orchard-vineyard land use >40 percent and at depths <200 feet. THMs and solvents were correlated positively with percent urban land use. Herbicide concentrations were correlated negatively with percent natural land use. Perchlorate concentrations were significantly greater in waters having modern and mixed ages than waters having pre-modern ages and were significantly and positively correlated with two land uses—percent orchard/vineyard land use and percent urban land use.

California↗

USGS1989

Ground-water-quality-monitoring program in Iowa: Nitrate and pesticides in shallow aquifers

Concern exists about the occurrence of agricultural chemicals, primarily nitrate and pesticides, in shallow ground water. In response to this concern, the focus of the Iowa ground-water-quality-monitoring program has shifted to emphasize nonpoint contaminants. The program, which began in 1982, is operated by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the University of Iowa Hygienic Laboratory and the Iowa Department of Natural Resources, Geological Survey Bureau and Environmental Protection Division. The objectives are to describe and assess the long-term chemical quality of the principal aquifers in Iowa and to direct water-quality assessment and sampling toward regional ground-water-quality concerns. In the spring of 1985, emphasis was placed on the analysis of pesticides in water samples collected from wells completed in surficial aquifers in Quaternary deposits or from wells less than 200 feet deep or both. Samples from these wells were analyzed for nitrate and selected pesticides. In water samples collected from 515 individual shallow wells, 6 percent had nitrate concentrations larger than the maximum contaminant level for public drinking water of 10 milligrams per liter as nitrogen. The concentrations ranged from less than 0.1 to 53 milligrams per liter as nitrogen. Eighteen percent of the samples had concentrations of nitrate between 5 and 10 milligrams per liter as nitrogen. Water samples from 355 individual municipal wells less than 200 feet deep have been analyzed for pesticides at least once. Detectable concentrations of at least one pesticide, including alachlor, atrazine, cyanazine, dicamba, metolachlor, or metribuzin, were detected in 20 percent of the samples. Atrazine was the most prevalent pesticide; concentrations, which ranged from 0.10 to 21 micrograms per liter, were detected in 18 percent of the samples. The results of the monitoring program indicate a relation between decreasing well depth and the presence of detectable concentrations of nitrate and pesticides. Most nitrate and pesticide detection was in areas where surficial aquifers in Quaternary deposits are the principal source of ground water. Pesticides were detected in samples collected throughout the year; samples collected in late spring and early summer more frequently contained pesticides than the other samples.

Iowa↗

USGS1996

Results of a detailed infill lake-sediment survey in the Snow Lake area: Evaluation and comparison of grab sample and short core data

As part of the Exploration Science and Technology Initiative (EXTECH) program a detailed infill lake-sediment and water survey was undertaken in the Snow Lake area during the fall of 1991. This involved the collection of 346 lake sediment grab samples and concomitant waters. In 1993, additional work was undertaken involving the collection of 23 short cores from selected grab sample sites. The primary objectives of the infill survey and short core work were to: 1) evaluate the effectiveness of lake sediment geochemistry in detecting known mineralization in the Snow Lake area; 2) evaluate and develop new approaches in the use of lake sediment geochemistry; and, 3) define, if possible, new exploration targets. At most sites, data from the cores verify the original grab sample results. However, at a few sites the original anomalous grab sample results are interpreted as being related to contamination as opposed to naturally elevated levels. An unusually thick sequence of contaminated surface sediments with extremely high concentrations of trace metals is a likely contributing factor, a condition which is restricted to lakes in the immediate vicinity of local anthropogenic activity. Collection of lake cores provides a useful new approach to the follow-up of grab sample data and to the application of lake sediment geochemistry, particularly in areas with significant local contamination. Much of the known mineralization in the area is clearly reflected by the lake sediment data. Character of the anomalies mirror the composition of the nearby mineralization. The lake sediment data also identify a number of areas that warrant further investigation, several of which are discussed.

Bulletin of the Geological Survey of Canada↗

USGS2019

Assessing potential effects of highway and urban runoff on receiving streams in total maximum daily load watersheds in Oregon using the stochastic empirical loading and dilution model

The Stochastic Empirical Loading and Dilution Model (SELDM) was developed by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in cooperation with the Federal Highway Administration to simulate stormwater quality. To assess the effects of runoff, SELDM uses a stochastic mass-balance approach to estimate combinations of pre-storm streamflow, stormflow, highway runoff, event mean concentrations (EMCs) and stormwater constituent loads from a site of interest. In addition, SELDM can be used to assess the effects of stormwater Best Management Practices (BMPs), which are designed to mitigate the adverse effects of runoff into a waterbody. Adverse effects of stormwater on receiving waters are one of the greatest unsolved water-quality problems Nationwide. State DOTs, municipalities, Federal facilities, and private property owners who manage impervious surfaces need information about the potential magnitude of their contributions and the potential effectiveness of methods to mitigate the adverse effects of runoff. Because the efficacy of at-site controls are limited, information about the potential effectiveness of alternative strategies is needed. The USGS, in cooperation with the Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT), conducted a study to research methods in which SELDM can be used to enhance the efficiency of ODOT’s stormwater program, support the development of a stormwater banking program, and meet environmental goals. Results can be used to develop a strategic, systems-level approach to stormwater management by considering entire watersheds instead of individual road crossings. Two watersheds, Bear Creek and Mill Creek, in western Oregon were selected for analysis. Within each watershed, seven road crossings were selected for demonstrating the utility of SELDM in nested basins. Precipitation statistics, pre-storm streamflow, runoff coefficients, and hydrograph recession factors were calculated for each location and used in SELDM to simulate flow, water-quality concentrations, and constituent loads in the upstream basin, from the highway (or developed area), and downstream from the road crossing. Three water-quality constituents were selected for modeling: suspended-sediment concentration (SSC), total phosphorus (TP), and total copper (TCu). Using water-quality transport curves, the relations between streamflow and SSC and between streamflow and TP were simulated. Concentrations of TCu were simulated by configuring a linear relation between SSC and TCu. A generic BMP was simulated using the median treatment statistics for flow reductions, hydrograph extensions, concentration reductions, and minimum irreducible concentrations from nine BMP categories with data from the 2012 International BMP database. Five simulation scenarios were modeled for demonstrative purposes. These simulations were used to evaluate potential effects of different watershed properties, water-quality inputs, and stormwater mitigation measures. Instream EMCs were compared to hypothetical water-quality criteria for suspended sediment, total phosphorus, and total copper to demonstrate the concept of water-quality risk analysis. For all five scenarios, it was assumed that highway runoff concentrations were independent of location or average annual daily traffic. These five scenarios are as follows: • Simulation Scenario 1—Natural Conditions (hereafter Simulation Scenario 1) represents conditions in an undeveloped watershed. This scenario demonstrates that the strategic placement of a hypothetical road crossing within a watershed could be used to avoid exceeding water-quality standards of TP and SSC, but that no location choice results in meeting TCu standards. Implementation of BMP had the most pronounced effects on downstream water-quality constituent EMCs at road crossings with the highest ratio of highway catchment area to upstream drainage area, but the largest effect of BMP treatment on mean annual load is based on highway catchment area alone. • Simulation Scenario 2—Current Conditions (hereafter Simulation Scenario 2) represents current watershed conditions, where all developed area upstream from the road crossing was modeled as a highway and combined with the undeveloped part of the upstream drainage area (scenario 2A) and where the output from scenario 2A is used for the upstream area (developed area and the undeveloped area), and where the road crossing is added as usual (scenario 2B). Scenario 2 results indicate that attaining water-quality standards is more difficult with upstream developed areas. Specific road-crossing sites can be selected to achieve the fewest water-quality exceedances per year, but water-quality targets are not met without BMP implementation, and in some instances are not achievable even with BMP implementation. Results from this scenario also serve to quantify the upper limit of constituent reduction if funding were available to implement BMPs to large areas of development, and to quantify how much area would need BMP implementation to achieve water-quality targets. • Simulation Scenario 3—Alternative Road Layouts (hereafter Simulation Scenario 3) was designed to assess the sensitivity of SELDM to various road layouts. In this scenario, different highway configurations were superimposed at one road crossing. Results indicate that downstream waterquality constituent EMCs did not exhibit much variation, but annual water-quality constituent loads varied considerably. • Simulation Scenario 4—Varying Road Width (hereafter Simulation Scenario 4) was designed to assess the sensitivity of SELDM to road width. Similar to scenario 3, the results indicate little variation in downstream water-quality constituent EMCs, but annual water-quality constituent loads increased in proportion to road width. • Simulation scenario 5—Changes to Impervious Area (hereafter Simulation Scenario 5) was designed to investigate the effects of changing amounts of imperviousness upstream from the road crossing. Results indicate that the downstream water-quality constituent EMCs are highly correlated with the percentage of impervious area upstream.

Oregon↗

USGS2016

Can the eastern red-backed salamander (Plethodon cinereus) persist in an acidified landscape?

Hardwood forests of eastern North America have experienced decades of acidic deposition, leading to soil acidification where base cation supply was insufficient to neutralize acid inputs. Negative impacts of soil acidity on amphibians include disrupted embryonic development, lower growth rates, and habitat loss. However, some amphibians exhibit intraspecific variation in acid tolerance, suggesting the potential for local adaptation in areas where soils are naturally acidic. The eastern red-backed salamander ( Plethodon cinereus ) is a highly abundant top predator of the northern hardwood forest floor. Early research found that P. cinereus was sensitive to acidic soils, avoiding substrates with pH < 3.8 and experiencing decreased growth rates in acidic habitats. However, recent studies have documented P. cinereus populations in lower pH conditions than previously observed, suggesting some populations may persist in acidic conditions. Here, we evaluated relationships between organic horizon soil pH and P. cinereus abundance, adult health (body size and condition), and microhabitat selection, based on surveys of 34 hardwood forests in northeastern United States that encompass a regional soil pH gradient. We found no associations between soil pH and P. cinereus abundance or health, and observed that this salamander used substrates with pH similar to that available, suggesting that pH does not mediate their fine-scale distributions. The strongest negative predictor of P. cinereus abundance was the presence of dusky salamanders ( Desmognathus spp.), which were most abundant in the western Adirondacks. Our results indicate that P. cinereus occupies a wider range of soil pH than has been previously thought, which has implications for their functional role in forest food webs and nutrient cycles in acid-impaired ecosystems. Tolerance of P. cinereus for more acidic habitats, including anthropogenically acidified forests, may be due to local adaptation in reproductively isolated populations and/or generalist life history traits that allow them to exploit a wider resource niche.

Ecosphere↗

USGS1957

Physical and ecologic features of the Sagadahoc Bay Tidal Flat, Georgetown, Maine

Sagadahoc Bay is open to the ocean at the south and has no significant fresh-water stream entering it. The intertidal zone is roughly a mile long by half a mile wide; most of it is made up of medium to fine sand, but organic-rich mud characterizes the head of the flat and the protected coves. Refraction-seismograph surveys showed that the bedrock surface lies 30 to 200 feet below the surface of the tidal flat and that it is irregular and fluted longitudinally. Repeated surveys indicate that the intertidal flat builds up and cuts down but is apparently in equilibrium with the present sea level. The sediment that fills the bay came from the sea. Waves and tidal currents tend to move it landward; storms accelerate this, or reverse the direction of movement, depending on the characteristics of the storm. Tidal- and wave-generated currents 0.1 foot above the bottom range in velocity from 0.35 to 0.82 foot per second on incoming tides and from 0.20 to 0.58 foot per second on ebbing tides. Incoming tides float large quantities of sand landward; ebbing tides never carry floating sand. Two distinctive and extensive Mya shell-pavement layers were found at depths of roughly 2 and 3 feet below the present surface of the tidal flat. The lower layer is approximately 1,000 years old according to a radiocarbon age determination of its Mya shells. It is suggested that these shell layers formed by sluicing away of a layer of sand about 2 feet thick, which had been thrown into loose packing by an earthquake at high tide. The earth shock induced a submarine slide of the sand in the outer part of the bay, which oversteepened the profile of the sand headward nearly to the head of the bay. Mya and other shells settled through the layer of quicksand while the sand was running out seaward. Living in the intertidal zone is the usual assemblage of clams, gastropods, crustaceans, worms, and seaweeds found on most northern New England tidal flats. The Mya arenaria population is decreasing, but in general myas are more numerous in the muddy areas than in the sandy areas. They grow more rapidly in the sand, though in the past decade there has been no significant renewal of the Mya population in the sandy part of the flat. Macoma balthica inhabits the muddy areas, whereas Ensis, Spisula, and Arctica are restricted to the low-tide zone and the shallow water below. Gemma gemma grows in great abundance in the sandy part of the flat but is rare in the muddy parts. Small shrimp and green crabs are common. The calcareous shells of these animals are all potential fossils, but the shrimp and crab exoskeletons are not, for their tests are rapidly decomposed in this environment. Other potential fossils are wood and bark, acorn caps, conifer cones, leaves of deciduous trees, seeds, and occasionally even grass stems and pieces of eel grass. All these are reasonably well preserved in the constant reducing environment that prevails an inch or two below the surface. An inverse relationship exists between the abundances of Mya arenaria and Gemma gemma. Cores and test pits show that gemmas are more numerous on the Sagadahoc flat now than they have been in the recent past (estimated 10–100 years). Gemmas are the dominant mollusk in the sandy part of the flat now that the myas are so extremely rare. The speculation is that gemmas became dominant largely because the Mya population was greatly reduced by intensive digging during and just after the last war and through depredations by green crabs. Possibly the warming climate has favored the gemmas selectively. The writer infers that the gemmas are a serious competitor of the myas and that the gemmas now starve out Mya spat, which is known to be carried into the bay each spring and fall. Two recommendations are made: (1) determining under controlled laboratory conditions the food requirements of Gemma and the density of Gemma population that will permit survival of Mya larvae from set through a stage that will assure maturation; and (2) killing off a large percentage of the Gemma population and observing whether or not a natural set of Mya occurs. Gemmas can be killed quickly under a flame shield such as is used to soften asphalt-sand mixtures in street paving. Inasmuch as gemmas are ovoviviparous they should not repopulate the flat rapidly.

Maine↗

USGS2009

Quality of Surface Water in Missouri, Water Year 2007

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Missouri Department of Natural Resources, designed and operates a series of monitoring stations on streams throughout Missouri known as the Ambient Water-Quality Monitoring Network. During the 2007 water year (October 1, 2006 through September 30, 2007), data were collected at 67 stations including two U.S. Geological Survey National Stream Quality Accounting Network stations and one spring sampled in cooperation with the U.S. Forest Service. Dissolved oxygen, specific conductance, water temperature, suspended solids, suspended sediment, fecal coliform bacteria, dissolved nitrite plus nitrte, total phosphorus, dissolved and total recoverable lead and zinc, and selected pesticide data summaries are presented for 64 of these stations, which primarily have been classified in groups corresponding to the physiography of the State, main land use, or unique station types. In addition, a summary of hydrologic conditions in the State during water year 2007 is presented.

Open-File Report↗

USGS2004

Water resources of Sweetwater County, Wyoming

Sweetwater County is located in the southwestern part of Wyoming and is the largest county in the State. A study to quantify the availability and describe the chemical quality of surface-water and ground-water resources in Sweetwater County was conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Wyoming State Engineer’s Office. Most of the county has an arid climate. For this reason a large amount of the flow in perennial streams within the county is derived from outside the county. Likewise, much of the ground-water recharge to aquifers within the county is from flows into the county, and occurs slowly. Surface-water data were not collected as part of the study. Evaluations of streamflow and stream-water quality were limited to analyses of historical data and descriptions of previous investigations. Forty-six new ground-water-quality samples were collected as part of the study and the results from an additional 782 historical ground-water-quality samples were reviewed. Available hydrogeologic characteristics for various aquifers throughout the county also are described. Flow characteristics of streams in Sweetwater County vary substantially depending on regional and local basin characteristics and anthropogenic factors. Because precipitation amounts in the county are small, most streams in the county are ephemeral, flowing only as a result of regional or local rainfall or snowmelt runoff. Flows in perennial streams in the county generally are a result of snowmelt runoff in the mountainous headwater areas to the north, west, and south of the county. Flow characteristics of most perennial streams are altered substantially by diversions and regulation. Water-quality characteristics of selected streams in and near Sweetwater County during water years 1974 through 1983 were variable. Concentrations of dissolved constituents, suspended sediment, and bacteria generally were smallest at sites on the Green River because of resistant geologic units, increased vegetative cover, large diluting streamflows, and large reservoirs. Concentrations of dissolved constituents, suspended sediment, and bacteria generally were largest at sites in the Big Sandy River and Bitter Creek Basins. Some nutrient concentrations and bacteria counts exceeded various State and Federal water-quality criteria. Historical and recent anthropogenic activities contributed to natural sources of many dissolved constituents and suspended sediment. Both water-table and artesian conditions occur in aquifers within the county. Shallow ground water is available throughout the county, although much of it is only marginally suitable or is unsuitable for domestic and irrigation uses mainly because of high total dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations. Suitable ground water for livestock use can be found in most areas of the county. Ground-water quality tends to deteriorate with increasing distance from recharge areas and with increasing depth below land surface. Ground water from depths of greater than a few thousand feet tends to have TDS concentrations that make it moderately saline to briny. In some areas even shallow ground water has moderately saline TDS concentrations. Specific constituents in parts of some aquifers in the county occur in relatively high concentrations when compared to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency drinking-water standards. Relatively high concentrations of sulfate, fluoride, boron, iron, and manganese were found in several aquifers. Many ground-water samples from the Battle Spring aquifer in the Great Divide Structural Basin had high radionuclide concentrations. The estimated mean daily water use in Sweetwater County in 2000 was 170.73 million gallons per day. Irrigation was the largest single use of water in the county with an estimated mean use of more than 92 million gallons per day. Surface water irrigation accounted for nearly 90 percent of the total irrigation water used in 2000. Although ground water is used to a much lesser extent than surface water, in many areas of the county it is the only source of water available.

Wyoming↗

USGS2004

Water-resources-related information for the Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District planning area, Wisconsin, 1970-2002

The Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District (MMSD) Corridor Study is a three-phase project designed to improve the understanding of water resources in the stream corridors of the MMSD planning area by initially compiling existing data and using the compiled information to develop 3-year baseline and long-term monitoring plans. This report is one of the products of Phase I of the Corridor Study. A literature review of surface-water-quality, surface water- quantity, and ecology studies conducted from 1970 through 2001 was completed and is summarized in this report. An inventory of Geographic Information System spatial coverages available for the MMSD planning area has been assembled. A database of water, sediment, and tissue (fish, shellfish, and others) chemistry, macroinvertebrates, fish, algae, habitat, geomorphic, and other physical and ecological data was compiled from data sets from MMSD, U.S. Geological Survey, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. More than 2.7 million results are available in the MMSD Corridor Study database and the compilation of multiple datasets allows for retrieving data from a central database rather than from each of the source datasets. Data for 1970 through 2002 were collected for the 420-square-mile planning area by various agencies using different field data-collection and laboratory analysis methods. Chemical constituents and ecological components that are important to an urban setting and well represented in the database were selected for further investigation. Each constituent or component is described in this report with some or all of the following: a text summary, map of sampling locations, and in some cases median concentrations, statistical distributions of concentrations by subwatershed, table of summary statistics by subwatershed, and graphs of temporal and (or) seasonal trends. Physical data presented in the report include streamflow, stream stage, and precipitation data. Chemical indicators of water quality presented in the report include field measurements and miscellaneous constituents (pH, alkalinity, specific conductance, hardness, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, and chloride), sediment (total suspended solids and suspended sediment), nutrients (total nitrogen, nitrate, Kjeldahl nitrogen, total phosphorus, and dissolved phosphorus), trace elements (cadmium, mercury, copper, lead, arsenic, chromium, nickel, and zinc), pesticides (historically used pesticides and pesticides still in use), and polychlorinated biphenyls. Ecological indicators of water quality discussed in the report include community surveys of macroinvertebrates and fish, chlorophyll a concentrations, habitat assessments and channel-measurement data, and fecal coliform and E. coli bacterial counts. In addition to the compilation of the database, a major purpose of this investigation was to identify additional sampling that should be conducted under the baseline monitoring phase, which will be the second phase of the Corridor Study. Additional sampling may include: • Some subwatersheds, such as those in the headwaters. • Emerging contaminants such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), human hormones, organic wastewater contaminants, and other constituents that result from human activity. • E. coli, which can serve as an indicator of health risk to swimmers and other recreational water users. • Pesticides in all media. • PCBs. • Trace elements in water, bed sediment, and tissues (fish, shellfish, and others). • Samples during winter months or during early snowmelt episodes to address constituents such as chloride and some nutrients that have seasonal variability and that may be affected by factors such as road deicing during the winter. • Samples for macroinvertebrate and fish-community data and habitat assessments. • Physical data such as stream-channel cross-section profiles, bridge-scour assessments, flood-plain maps, structures, and shoreline conditions.

Wisconsin↗

USGS1987

Analysis of water-level fluctuations in Wisconsin wells

More than 60 percent of the residents of Wisconsin use ground water as their primary water source. Water supplies presently are abundant, but ground-water levels continually fluctuate in response to natural factors and human-related stresses. A better understanding of the magnitude, duration, and frequency of past fluctuations, and the factors controlling these fluctuations may help anticipate future changes in ground-water levels. This report presents the results of statistical analyses of historical ground-water level fluctuations in Wisconsin. Short- and long-term fluctuations are discussed in terms of their relation to components of the hydrogeologic system. Water-level measurements from 124 wells with at least 20 years of record each were used in the study. The mean, highest and lowest monthly mean, median, and selected quantiles were obtained using the SAS Proc Univariate procedure. The frequency values from the Univariate table were used to construct stage-duration graphs. Pearson Type ill frequency analyses were used to obtain probabilities of exceedance of particular water levels. The data were divided into seasonal data sets for each well. The stage-duration and Pearson Type III analyses are based on past fluctuations but may be useful for estimating future water-level changes under similar conditions. Multiple-regression analyses were run on data from groups of wells representing different ground-water districts. The SAS Proc Stepwise method was used. The regression model used average annual amplitude as the dependent variable and mean water level, mean annual precipitation, standard deviation of the seasonal mean precipitation, aquifer type, and topographic setting as the independent variables.This procedure produced different regression equations for each hydrogeologic district. Regression analyses also were done on data from groups of wells representing different aquifers. These regression models used average annual amplitude as the dependent variable and mean water level, topographic setting, and standard deviation of seasonal mean precipitation as the independent variables. Because of the many factors influencing ground-water level fluctuations, it was difficult to obtain a regression model that accurately reproduced average annual amplitude. The results of the regression analyses are helpful in recognizing the important variables; however, the equations are not effective in predicting the amplitude of a particular well because local conditions were omitted in the regional analyses. Hydrographs of average annual water level and frequency distribution analyses of annual maximum and minimum water levels were inspected for possible long-term trends. Analysis of annual maximum and minimum water levels indicates several periods in the annual cyclic fluctuations-two periods of recession (winter and summer), and two periods of rising levels (spring and fall). Usually, water levels are lowest in late winter and highest in spring for every annual cycle. The summer-fall minimum and the fall maximum are less distinct and do not occur every year. A composite frequency analysis of extreme annual water levels on 71 of the wells shows that the lowest levels most frequently occur in December, February, or March. However, the record low usually occurs in August, September, or October during drought. Ground-water levels most often peak in May, April, or June. In the fan they may peak from September through December, depending upon complexities of meteorological, geomorphological, and geological factors. The long-term cyclicity of ground-water level fluctuations is shown on hydrographs of wells Sw-7, Ln-25a, Mt-7, Ju-8, and Ju-98. Seasonal variations that tend to obscure the long-term trends are eliminated by plotting the average annual water levels. The hydrographs are similar even though the wells are 80 to 100 miles apart and constructed in different geologic materials. The long-term trends and the duration of the cycles apparently depend little on the location and on the lithologic composition of the aquifers, but rather on precipitation. The hydrographs show several periods of welldefined peaks and lows. The ground-water levels reached peaks in 1946, 1952, 1960, 1966, 1973, 1979. The average interval between these peaks is 6.6 years. The low levels occurred in 1949, 1955-59, 1964, 1970, and 1977; average interval between the low levels is 7.0 years, which is similar to that for the high levels. Long-term trends are apparent on hydrographs of wells Br-46, Mr-2S, Pt-276, Ro-3, and Ve-8. The trend of average annual water levels has been generally increasing since the late 1950's and is in general agreement with the increasing trend of precipitation. Hydrographs of well Ve-8, which has the longest period of record in Wisconsin, indicate that the generally rising trend started even earlier at the end of an extensive drought period in the 1930's.

Wisconsin↗