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At least 1,531 records · Page 85Linked to original sources
USGS2019

Quantification of sucralose in groundwater well drinking water by silylation derivatization and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Sucralose is an increasingly popular artificial sweetener and has been found in the environment in groundwater, surface water, and wastewater treatment plant effluent. Its chemical properties make it strongly recalcitrant in the environment and it has been used as a conservative tracer of human wastewater in recent years. Most current methods of sucralose analysis use high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) instrumentation. In this study, we describe an analytical method using silylation derivatization and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for the quantification of sucralose in groundwater samples. This method employs a deuterium-labeled internal standard to account for reaction and sample processing imprecision. The deuterated internal standard as well as experiments using negative ion chemical ionization gas chromatography-mass spectrometry strongly indicate that sucralose is derivatized at all five hydroxyl positions with trimethyl silyl groups. A previously developed GC-MS method with derivatization of sucralose in environmental samples did not employ an internal standard for quantification. As such, this method represents a more robust methodological approach for sucralose quantification in environmental samples. The method detection limit based on a set of 15 method blanks was calculated to be 21.8 ng L −1 , which is competitive with most methods in the published literature and sufficient to detect sucralose in water with ∼0.1% wastewater contribution. The method was applied to 37 groundwater samples from drinking water wells in California's Central Valley, in which five samples (13.5%) were found to contain sucralose at concentrations greater than the 21.8 ng L −1 detection limit.

Analytical Methods↗
USGS2025

Scalable environmental DNA methods reveal strong associations between landscape-scale forest habitat and insect richness

While aquatic environmental DNA (eDNA) methods have reached relative maturity, terrestrial eDNA methods are nascent and have yet to reach widespread use. Field-ready applications require eDNA survey methods where samples are easy to collect by inexperienced practitioners, easy to transport between the field and lab, and easy to process thereafter. Here, we demonstrate methods that satisfy these requirements and show strong potential for characterizing diverse terrestrial eDNA samples collected from flower and leaf surfaces. We used novel methods to collect and process 236 flower eDNA samples and 21 leaf surface eDNA samples, obtaining 2,228 Arthropoda eDNA detections spanning 175 families using amplicon sequencing of two genetic markers. Detected taxa were diverse and included numerous groups of conservation concern, such as bees (Hymenoptera; Anthophila, 32 genera spanning 5 families) and Lepidoptera (209 genera from 21 families). Data reveal strong associations between insect community richness and remotely sensed measures of forest habitat, providing a quantitative perspective of relevance to insect conservation. It is increasingly clear that a variety of organisms readily disperse eDNA throughout the environment, supporting the notion that eDNA will be a powerful tool for characterizing species distributions and monitoring at-risk species. However, we conclude that researchers seeking to characterize fine-scale habitat associations or plant-pollinator interactions using eDNA will need to carefully design studies with appropriate field controls, such as the leaf surface eDNA samples collected here.

BioRxiv↗
USGS2009

Land crabs as key drivers in tropical coastal forest recruitment

Plant populations are regulated by a diverse assortment of abiotic and biotic factors that influence seed dispersal and viability, and seedling establishment and growth at the microsite. Rarely does one animal guild exert as significant an influence on different plant assemblages as land crabs. We review three tropical coastal ecosystems-mangroves, island maritime forests, and mainland coastal terrestrial forests-where land crabs directly influence forest composition by limiting tree establishment and recruitment. Land crabs differentially prey on seeds, propagules and seedlings along nutrient, chemical and physical environmental gradients. In all of these ecosystems, but especially mangroves, abiotic gradients are well studied, strong and influence plant species distributions. However, we suggest that crab predation has primacy over many of these environmental factors by acting as the first limiting factor of tropical tree recruitment to drive the potential structural and compositional organisation of coastal forests. We show that the influence of crabs varies relative to tidal gradient, shoreline distance, canopy position, time, season, tree species and fruiting periodicity. Crabs also facilitate forest growth and development through such activities as excavation of burrows, creation of soil mounds, aeration of soils, removal of leaf litter into burrows and creation of carbon-rich soil microhabitats. For all three systems, land crabs influence the distribution, density and size-class structure of tree populations. Indeed, crabs are among the major drivers of tree recruitment in tropical coastal forest ecosystems, and their conservation should be included in management plans of these forests. ?? 2009 Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Biological Reviews↗
USGS2024

Key breeding habitats of threatened golden eagles across Eastern Canada identified using a multi-level, multi-scale habitat selection approach

Context In a conservation context, identifying key habitats suitable for reproduction, foraging, or survival is a useful tool, yet challenging for species with large geographic distributions and/or living in remote regions. Objectives The objective of this study is to identify selected habitats at multiple levels and scales of the threatened eastern North American population of golden eagles ( Aquila chrysaetos ). We studied habitat selection at three levels: landscape (second order of selection), foraging (third order of selection), and nesting (fourth order of selection). Methods Using tracking data from 30 adults and 366 nest coordinates spanning over a 1.5 million km 2 area in remote boreal and Arctic regions, we modelled the three levels of habitat selection with resource selection functions using seven environmental features (aerial, topographical, and land cover). We then calculated the relative probability of selection in the study area to identify regions with higher probabilities of selection. Results Eagles selected more for terrain ruggedness index and relative elevation than land cover (i.e., forest cover, distance to water; mean difference in relative selection strength: 1.2 [0.71; 1.69], 95% CI) at all three levels. We also found that the relative probability of selection at all three levels was ~ 25% higher in the Arctic than in the boreal regions. Eagles breeding in the Arctic travelled shorter foraging distances with greater access to habitat with a high probability of selection than boreal eagles. Conclusion Here we found which aerial and topographical features were important for several of the eagles’ life cycle needs. We also identified important areas to monitor and preserve this threatened population. The next step is to quantify the quality of habitat by linking our multi-level, multi-scale approach to population demography and performance such as reproductive success.

Landscape Ecology↗
USGS2011

Managing and learning with multiple models: Objectives and optimization algorithms

The quality of environmental decisions should be gauged according to managers' objectives. Management objectives generally seek to maximize quantifiable measures of system benefit, for instance population growth rate. Reaching these goals often requires a certain degree of learning about the system. Learning can occur by using management action in combination with a monitoring system. Furthermore, actions can be chosen strategically to obtain specific kinds of information. Formal decision making tools can choose actions to favor such learning in two ways: implicitly via the optimization algorithm that is used when there is a management objective (for instance, when using adaptive management), or explicitly by quantifying knowledge and using it as the fundamental project objective, an approach new to conservation.This paper outlines three conservation project objectives - a pure management objective, a pure learning objective, and an objective that is a weighted mixture of these two. We use eight optimization algorithms to choose actions that meet project objectives and illustrate them in a simulated conservation project. The algorithms provide a taxonomy of decision making tools in conservation management when there is uncertainty surrounding competing models of system function. The algorithms build upon each other such that their differences are highlighted and practitioners may see where their decision making tools can be improved. ?? 2010 Elsevier Ltd.

Biological Conservation↗
USGS2018

Fuels guide and database for intact and invaded big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) ecological sites—User manual

The Fuels Guide and Database (FGD) is intended to provide fuel loading and vegetation information for big sagebrush ( Artemisia tridentata ) ecological sites in the Morley Nelson Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area (hereinafter the NCA) in southern Idaho. Sagebrush ecosystems in the NCA and throughout much of the Great Basin are highly influenced by non-native plants that alter successional trajectories and promote frequent wildfires, especially due to fine-fuel loadings that are highly variable over time and space. These dynamic fuel conditions can increase uncertainty when attempting to project fire risk and fire behavior. The FGD was developed to help quantify and assess these dynamic fuel loadings, and it provides access to fuels data across a range of conditions, from relatively intact sagebrush-bunchgrass communities to degraded communities dominated by nonnative annual grasses and forbs. The FGD can be queried for a variety of environmental conditions, and it provides tabular data, reports, and photographic records of fuels based on user queries. This report describes the FGD, including overall data content and data-collection methods, as well as instructions for installing and using the database.

Data Series↗
USGS2020

Characterizing patterns of genomic variation in the threatened Utah prairie dog: Implications for conservation and management

Utah prairie dogs ( Cynomys parvidens ) are federally threatened due to eradication campaigns, habitat destruction, and outbreaks of plague. Today, Utah prairie dogs exist in small, isolated populations, making them less demographically stable and more susceptible to erosion of genetic variation by genetic drift. We characterized patterns of genetic structure at neutral and putatively adaptive loci in order to evaluate the relative effects of genetic drift and local adaptation on population divergence. We sampled individuals across the Utah prairie dog species range and generated 2,955 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) using double digest restriction site associated DNA sequencing (ddRAD). Genetic diversity was lower in low elevation sites compared to high elevation sites. Population divergence was high among sites and followed an isolation‐by‐distance (IBD) model. Our results indicate that genetic drift plays a substantial role in the population divergence of the Utah prairie dog, and colonies would likely benefit from translocation of individuals between recovery units, which are characterized by distinct elevations, despite the detection of environmental associations with outlier loci. By understanding the processes that shape genetic structure, better informed decisions can be made with respect to the management of threatened species to ensure that adaptation is not stymied.

Utah↗
USGS1993

Selecting islands and shoals for conservation based on biological and aesthetic criteria

Consideration of biological quality has long been an important component of rating areas for conservation. Often these same areas are highly valued by people for aesthetic reasons, creating demands for housing and recreation that may conflict with protection plans for these habitats. Most methods of selecting land for conservation purposes use biological factors alone. For some land areas, analysis of aesthetic qualities is also important in describing the scenic value of undisturbed land. A method for prioritizing small islands and shoals based on both biological and visual quality factors is presented here. The study included 169 undeveloped islands and shoals a??0.8 ha in the Thousand Islands Region of the St. Lawrence River, New York. Criteria such as critical habitat for uncommon plant and animal species were considered together with visual quality and incorporated into a rating system that ranked the islands and shoals according to their priority for conservation management and protection from development. Biological factors were determined based on previous research and a field survey. Visual quality was determined by visual diagnostic criteria developed from public responses to photographs of a sample of islands. Variables such as elevation, soil depth, and type of plant community can be used to classify islands into different categories of visual quality but are unsuccessful in classifying islands into categories of overall biological quality.

Environmental Management↗
USGS2024

Status of public-supply water sources in 2022 and the development of a geographic information system methodology for the Public Drinking Water Source Water Assessment Program in Tennessee

Introduction In 2021, the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation (TDEC) and the U.S. Geological Survey worked in cooperation to develop a geographic information system (GIS)-based methodology that systematically assesses the vulnerability of public-supply drinking water to potential contaminants consistent with the standards set forth in the Tennessee Source Water Assessment Program ( SWAP ) . As of June 2022, public-supply water was provided by 643 active public water systems across Tennessee that withdrew water for public use from 1,378 individual water sources. With the newly developed methodology , referred to as “TN- SWAPyT , ” TDEC can consistently delineate source water assessment zones and evaluate source susceptibility on the basis of information such as the proximity of contaminant sources, land-use activities, geologic information, and additional environmental spatial data. A major benefit of the TN- SWAPyT methodology is to provide TDEC with consistent reports that can be used as a starting point for assessing public supplies. Communities and public water systems can then build upon these reports by using local knowledge and site-specific information.

Tennessee↗
USGS2010

Evaluation of aquatic biota in relation to environmental characteristics measured at multiple scales in agricultural streams of the Midwest: 1993-2004

This study evaluated the relations between algal, invertebrate, and fish assemblages and physical environmental characteristics of streams at the reach, segment, and watershed scale in agricultural settings in the Midwest. The 86 stream sites selected for study were in predominantly agricultural watersheds sampled as part of the U.S. Geological Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment Program. Species abundance and over 130 biological metrics were used to determine which aspects of the assemblages were most sensitive to change at the three spatial scales. Digital orthophotograph-based riparian land use/land cover was used for analyses of riparian conditions at the reach and segment scales. The percentage area of different land-use/land-cover types was also determined for each watershed. Out of over 230 environmental characteristics examined, those that best explained variation in the biotic assemblages at each spatial scale include the following: 1) reach: bank vegetative cover, fine silty substrate, and open canopy angle; 2) segment: woody vegetation and cropland in the 250-m riparian buffer, and average length of undisturbed buffer; and 3) watershed: land use/land cover (both total forested and row crop), low-permeability soils, slope, drainage area, and latitude. All three biological assemblages, especially fish, correlated more with land use/land cover and other physical characteristics at the watershed scale than at the reach or segment scales. This study identifies biotic measures that can be used to evaluate potential improvements resulting from agricultural best-management practices and other conservation efforts, as well as evaluate potential impairment from urban development or other disturbances.

Midwest↗
USGS2015

Global change and conservation triage on National Wildlife Refuges

National Wildlife Refuges (NWRs) in the United States play an important role in the adaptation of social-ecological systems to climate change, land-use change, and other global-change processes. Coastal refuges are already experiencing threats from sea-level rise and other change processes that are largely beyond their ability to influence, while at the same time facing tighter budgets and reduced staff. We engaged in workshops with NWR managers along the U.S. Atlantic coast to understand the problems they face from global-change processes and began a multidisciplinary collaboration to use decision science to help address them. We are applying a values-focused approach to base management decisions on the resource objectives of land managers, as well as those of stakeholders who may benefit from the goods and services produced by a refuge. Two insights that emerged from our workshops were a conspicuous mismatch between the scale at which management can influence outcomes and the scale of environmental processes, and the need to consider objectives related to ecosystem goods and services that traditionally have not been explicitly considered by refuges (e.g., protection from storm surge). The broadening of objectives complicates the decision-making process, but also provides opportunities for collaboration with stakeholders who may have agendas different from those of the refuge, as well as an opportunity for addressing problems across scales. From a practical perspective, we recognized the need to (1) efficiently allocate limited staff time and budgets for short-term management of existing programs and resources under the current refuge design and (2) develop long-term priorities for acquiring or protecting new land/habitat to supplement or replace the existing refuge footprint and thus sustain refuge values as the system evolves over time. Structuring the decision-making problem in this manner facilitated a better understanding of the issues of scale and suggested that a long-term solution will require a significant reassessment of objectives to better reflect the comprehensive values of refuges to society. We discuss some future considerations to integrate these two problems into a single framework by developing novel optimization approaches for dynamic problems that account for uncertainty in future conditions.

Ecology and Society↗
USGS2006

Fulfilling a paradoxical mandate: can the Environmental Water Account ensure the reliability of freshwater exports from the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta and simultaneously protect delta smelt (Hypomesus transpacificus) from excessive entrainment?

The San Francisco Estuary (SFE) is often defined by its extremes. It is considered one of the most urbanized estuaries in the world (Conomos 1979, Nichols et al. 1986), and one of the most invaded estuaries in the United States, with hundreds of aquatic nonindigenous species established throughout the system (Cohen and Carlton 1995, Dill and Cordone 1997, Kimmerer and Orsi 1996). It is also one of the most managed estuaries, particularly in relation to freshwater inflow, water circulation, and water quality (Jassby and Powell 1994, CSWRCB 1995, Arthur et al. 1996, Kimmerer 2002). Despite this high level of disturbance, the SFE is one of the most valuable natural resources in the western United States (CALFED 2000). The SFE provides important habitat for numerous native plant and animal species, many of special concern, as well as several species with sport and commercial value (CALFED 2000). Conserving and restoring estuarine habitat and natural resources is a pressing and complex challenge for the responsible government agencies because human water needs continue to increase in concert with continuing urbanization of the watershed.

Interagency Ecological Program Newsletter↗
USGS2007

Molecular and phenotypic diversity in Chionactis occipitalis (Western Shovel-nosed Snake), with emphasis on the status of C. o. klauberi (Tucson Shovel-nosed Snake).

Chionactis occipitalis (Western Shovel-nosed Snake) is a small colubrid snake inhabiting the arid regions of the Mojave, Sonoran, and Colorado deserts. Morphological assessments of taxonomy currently recognize four subspecies. However, these taxonomic proposals were largely based on weak morphological differentiation and inadequate geographic sampling. Our goal was to explore evolutionary relationships and boundaries among subspecies of C. occipitalis, with particular focus on individuals within the known range of C. o. klauberi (Tucson Shovel-nosed snake). Population sizes and range for C. o. klauberi have declined over the last 25 years due to habitat alteration and loss prompting a petition to list this subspecies as endangered. We examined the phylogeography, population structure, and subspecific taxonomy of C. occipitalis across its geographic range with genetic analysis of 1100 bases of mitochondrial DNA sequence and reanalysis of 14 morphological characters from 1543 museum specimens. We estimated the species gene phylogeny from 81 snakes using Bayesian inference and explored possible factors influencing genetic variation using landscape genetic analyses. Phylogenetic and population genetic analyses reveal genetic isolation and independent evolutionary trajectories for two primary clades. Our data indicate that diversification between these clades has developed as a result of both historical vicariance and environmental isolating mechanisms. Thus these two clades likely comprise 'evolutionary significant units' (ESUs). Neither molecular nor morphological data are concordant with the traditional C. occipitalis subspecies taxonomy. Mitochondrial sequences suggest specimens recognized as C. o. klauberi are embedded in a larger geographic clade whose range has expanded from western Arizona populations, and these data are concordant with clinal longitudinal variation in morphology. ?? 2007 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

Conservation Genetics↗
USGS2016

Migratory corridors of adult female Kemp’s ridley turtles in the Gulf of Mexico

For many marine species, locations of migratory pathways are not well defined. We used satellite telemetry and switching state-space modeling (SSM) to define the migratory corridor used by Kemp's ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) in the Gulf of Mexico. The turtles were tagged after nesting at Padre Island National Seashore, Texas, USA from 1997 to 2014 (PAIS; n = 80); Rancho Nuevo, Tamaulipas, Mexico from 2010 to 2011 (RN; n = 14); Tecolutla, Veracruz, Mexico from 2012 to 2013 (VC; n = 13); and Gulf Shores, Alabama, USA during 2012 (GS; n = 1). The migratory corridor lies in nearshore Gulf of Mexico waters in the USA and Mexico with mean water depth of 26 m and a mean distance of 20 km from the nearest mainland coast. Migration from the nesting beach is a short phenomenon that occurs from late-May through August, with a peak in June. There was spatial similarity of post-nesting migratory pathways for different turtles over a 16 year period. Thus, our results indicate that these nearshore Gulf waters represent a critical migratory habitat for this species. However, there is a gap in our understanding of the migratory pathways used by this and other species to return from foraging grounds to nesting beaches. Therefore, our results highlight the need for tracking reproductive individuals from foraging grounds to nesting beaches. Continued tracking of adult females from PAIS, RN, and VC nesting beaches will allow further study of environmental and bathymetric components of migratory habitat and threats occurring within our defined corridor. Furthermore, the existence of this migratory corridor in nearshore waters of both the USA and Mexico demonstrates that international cooperation is necessary to protect essential migratory habitat for this imperiled species.

Gulf of Mexico↗
USGS2018

Concentrations of environmental DNA (eDNA) reflect spawning salmon abundance at fine spatial and temporal scales

Developing fast, cost-effective assessments of wild animal abundance is an important goal for many researchers, and environmental DNA (eDNA) holds much promise for this purpose. However, the quantitative relationship between species abundance and the amount of DNA present in the environment is likely to vary substantially among taxa and with ecological context. Here, we report a strong quantitative relationship between eDNA concentration and the abundance of spawning sockeye salmon in a small stream in Alaska, USA, where we took temporally- and spatially-replicated samples during the spawning period. This high-resolution dataset suggests that (1) eDNA concentrations vary significantly day-to-day, and likely within hours, in the context of the dynamic biological event of a salmon spawning season; (2) eDNA, as detected by species-specific quantitative PCR probes, seems to be conserved over short distances (tens of meters) in running water, but degrade quickly over larger scales (ca. 1.5 km); and (3) factors other than the mere presence of live, individual fish — such as location within the stream, live/dead ratio, and water temperature — can affect the eDNA-biomass correlation in space or time. A multivariate model incorporating both biotic and abiotic variables accounted for over 75% of the eDNA variance observed, suggesting that where a system is well-characterized, it may be possible to predict species' abundance from eDNA surveys, although we underscore that species- and system-specific variables are likely to limit the generality of any given quantitative model. Nevertheless, these findings provide an important step toward quantitative applications of eDNA in conservation and management.

Alaska↗
USGS2025

Triangulating habitat suitability for the locally extirpated California grizzly bear

Reintroducing locally extirpated wildlife species is often necessary to meet recovery goals. However, because current field data cannot be gathered about these species, efforts to identify suitable habitat are often complicated and controversial. Here we present a case study examining a novel approach for identifying suitable habitat for the locally extirpated brown bear, known as the “grizzly,” in California, USA. Once home to a large population of grizzlies, the last credible sighting of a grizzly in California was in 1924, but recent discussions have explored a reintroduction. To study potential grizzly bear habitat suitability in California, we use a multi-model approach in which we consider three indirect methods, or “analogies,” each of which incorporates both environmental and social variables. In the “historical analogy,” we used a unique record of human encounters and museum specimens to build a habitat model of grizzlies in California 150 years ago. In the “geographic analogy,” we used data about contemporary brown bears in Europe and North America to identify potential suitable habitat in California. In the “taxonomic analogy,” we examined data from other large carnivores currently extant in California to draw conclusions about grizzlies. Because these methods yield varying results, we adopt a process known in the social sciences as “triangulation” to compare them. We show that a triangulation approach can improve our understanding of potential suitable habitat, clarifying the strengths and weaknesses of various methods and producing robust yet conservative estimates. Our findings suggest that large areas of suitable habitat for grizzlies exist in California. However, we note that place-based social science research and long-term investment in co-existence would be necessary to maintain suitability. The “analogy and triangulation” approach demonstrates the value of multi-model approaches for habitat suitability, especially for reintroductions.

California↗
USGS2010

Modeling the human invader in the United States

Modern biogeographers recognize that humans are seen as constituents of ecosystems, drivers of significant change, and perhaps, the most invasive species on earth. We found it instructive to model humans as invasive organisms with the same environmental factors. We present a preliminary model of the spread of modern humans in the conterminous United States between 1992 and 2001 based on a subset of National Land Cover Data (NLCD), a time series LANDSAT product. We relied on the commonly used Maxent model, a species-environmental matching model, to map urbanization. Results: Urban areas represented 5.1% of the lower 48 states in 2001, an increase of 7.5% (18,112 km 2 ) in the nine year period. At this rate, an area the size of Massachusetts is converted to urban land use every ten years. We used accepted models commonly used for mapping plant and animal distributions and found that climatic and environmental factors can strongly predict our spread (i.e., the conversion of forests, shrub/grass, and wetland areas into urban areas), with a 92.5% success rate (Area Under the Curve). Adding a roads layer in the model improved predictions to a 95.5% success rate. 8.8% of the 1-km 2 > cells in the conterminous U.S. now have a major road in them. In 2001, 0.8% of 1-km 2 > cells in the U.S. had an urbanness value of > 800, (>89% of a 1-km 2 > cell is urban), while we predict that 24.5% of 1-km 2 > cells in the conterminous U.S. will be > 800 eventually. Main conclusion: Humans have a highly predictable pattern of urbanization based on climatic and topographic variables. Conservation strategies may benefit from that predictability.

Journal of Applied Remote Sensing↗
USGS2019

Potential sea level rise for the Chitimacha Tribe of Louisiana

Situated in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain of the Gulf Coast Prairie Landscape Conservation Cooperative (GCP LCC), the Chitimacha Tribe is one of four federally recognized tribes in Louisiana. The Tribal seat, trust lands/ reservation, and adjacent Tribal owned lands are located near Charenton, Louisiana, totaling nearly 1,000 acres. The Chitimacha, with a population of approximately 1,400 people, are currently impacted by storm surge, which is expected to increase with climate change. The additional stress from storms will likewise increase the vulnerability to catastrophic impact in the event of a breach in the Atchafalaya Basin Spillway levee. A collaborative effort between the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the Chitimacha Tribe has been initiated to provide resources and expertise to increase the Tribe’s ability to prevent, plan, and prepare for these environmental challenges. By enhancing technical skills, providing access to environmental data, and increasing awareness of environmental issues, the Chitimacha will be better prepared to plan and adapt to the environmental impacts facing their lands related to land use and climate change. For this project, USGS researchers asked how Chitimacha Tribal Lands might be impacted by future sea level rise scenario projections. These models illustrate some flooding within the northernmost boundary of Chitimacha Tribal Lands.

Louisiana↗