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At least 1,459 records · Page 81Linked to original sources
USGS1997

Water resources of Indiana County, Pennsylvania

Indiana County, west-central Pennsylvania, is a major producer of coal and natural gas. Water managers and residents are concerned about the effects of mining and natural gas exploration on the surface- and ground-water resources of the county. This study assesses the quality and quantity of water in Indiana County. Ground- and surface-water sources are used for public supplies that serve 61 percent of the total population of the county. The remaining 39 percent of the population live in rural areas and rely on cisterns and wells and springs that tap shallow aquifers. Most of the county is underlain by rocks of Middle to Upper Pennsylvanian age. From oldest to youngest, they are the Allegheny Group, the Glenshaw Formation, the Casselman Formation, and the Monongahela Group. Almost all the coals mined are in the Allegheny Group and the Monongahela Group. Ground water in Indiana County flows through fractures in the rock. The size and extent of the fractures, which are controlled by lithology, topography, and structure, determine the sustained yield of wells. Topography has a significant control over the yields of wells sited in the Allegheny Group. Properly sited wells in the Glenshaw Formation may have yields adequate for municipal, commercial, or industrial uses. The Casselman Formation yields adequate amounts of water for domestic use. Yield of the Monongahela Group is small, and the water may not be of suitable quality for most uses. Yields of hilltop wells may be marginal, but valley wells may yield sufficient amounts for large-volume users. Data on the other rock units are sparse to nonexistent. Few wells in the county yield more than 40 gallons per minute. Most of the wells that do are in valleys where alluvial deposits are extensive enough to be mapable. Short-term water-level fluctuations are variable from well to well. Seasonal water-level fluctuations are controlled by time of year and amount of precipitation. The quality of water from the Casselman Formation, Glenshaw Formation, and Allegheny Group tends to be hard and may have concentrations of iron and manganese that exceed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels of 0.3 milligrams per liter and 0.05 milligrams per liter, respectively. Ground water from the Glenshaw Formation is less mineralized than ground water from the Allegheny Group. Concentrations of minerals in water from the Casselman Formation are between those in water from the Glenshaw Formation and the Allegheny Group. Water from wells on hilltops has lower concentrations of dissolved solids than water from wells on hillsides. Water from valley wells is the most mineralized. Nearly half the springs tested yield water that is low in pH and dissolved solids; this combination makes the water chemically aggressive. The 7-day, 10-year low-flow frequencies for 26 unregulated surface-water sites ranged from 0.0 to 0.19 cubic feet per second per square mile. The presence of coal mines and variations in precipitation were probably the principal factors affecting flow duration on Blacklick Creek (site 28) during 1953-88. Sustained base flows of regulated streams such as Blacklick Creek generally were larger than those of unregulated streams as a result of low-flow augmentation. The annual water loss in streamflow as a result of evapotranspiration, diversion, seepage to mines, and seepage to the ground-water system was determined at four sites (sites 8, 9, 17, and 28) and ranged from 35 to 53 percent. The highest concentrations of dissolved solids, iron, manganese, aluminum, zinc, and sulfate were measured mostly in streams in central and southern Indiana County, where active and abandoned coal mines are the most numerous. Streamflow was measured during low flow in two small basins; one basin almost completely deep mined (Cherry Run) and one basin unmined (South Branch Plum Creek). The measurements showed a con

Pennsylvania↗
USGS2016

Triennial changes in groundwater quality in aquifers used for public supply in California: Utility as indicators of temporal trends

From 2004 to 2011, the U.S. Geological Survey collected samples from 1686 wells across the State of California as part of the California State Water Resources Control Board’s Groundwater Ambient Monitoring and Assessment (GAMA) Priority Basin Project (PBP). From 2007 to 2013, 224 of these wells were resampled to assess temporal trends in water quality. The samples were analyzed for 216 water-quality constituents, including inorganic and organic compounds as well as isotopic tracers. The resampled wells were grouped into five hydrogeologic zones. A nonparametric hypothesis test was used to test the differences between initial sampling and resampling results to evaluate possible step trends in water-quality, statewide, and within each hydrogeologic zone. The hypothesis tests were performed on the 79 constituents that were detected in more than 5 % of the samples collected during either sampling period in at least one hydrogeologic zone. Step trends were detected for 17 constituents. Increasing trends were detected for alkalinity, aluminum, beryllium, boron, lithium, orthophosphate, perchlorate, sodium, and specific conductance. Decreasing trends were detected for atrazine, cobalt, dissolved oxygen, lead, nickel, pH, simazine, and tritium. Tritium was expected to decrease due to decreasing values in precipitation, and the detection of decreases indicates that the method is capable of resolving temporal trends.

California↗
USGS2020

U.S. Geological Survey STATEMAP Program—Geologic mapping for the public good

As of 2020, STATEMAP has invested more than $150 million in 48 State geological surveys, matched dollar for dollar, to complete geologic mapping projects crucial to the health and security of State natural resources and residents. For more information about STATEMAP and other geologic mapping efforts supported by the National Cooperative Geologic Mapping Program, visit https://ncgmp.usgs.gov .

Fact Sheet↗
USGS2007

Processes Affecting Phosphorus and Copper Concentrations and Their Relation to Algal Growth in Two Supply Reservoirs in the Lower Coastal Plain of Virginia, 2002-2003, and Implications for Alternative Management Strategies

Elevated phosphorus concentrations commonly promote excessive growth of algae in waters nationwide. When such waters are used for public supply, the algae can plug filters during treatment and impart tastes and odors to the finished water. This increases treatment costs and results in finished water that may not be of the quality desired for public supply. Consequently, copper sulfate is routinely applied to many reservoirs to control algal growth but only is a 'temporary fix' and must be reapplied at intervals that can range from more than 30 days in the winter to less than 7 days in the summer. Because copper has a maximum allowable concentration in public drinking water and can be toxic to aquatic life, water suppliers commonly seek to develop alternative, long-term strategies for managing reservoirs. Because these are nationwide issues and part of the mission of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is to define and protect the quality of the Nation's water resources and better understand the physical, chemical, and biological processes in wetlands, lakes, reservoirs, and estuaries, investigations into these issues are important to the fulfillment of the mission of the USGS. The City of Newport News, Virginia, provides 50 million gallons per day of treated water for public supply from Lee Hall and Harwoods Mill Reservoirs (terminal reservoirs) to communities on the lower York-James Peninsula. About 3,500 pounds of copper sulfate are applied to each reservoir at 3- to 99-day intervals to control algal growth. Consequently, the USGS, in cooperation with the City of Newport News, investigated the effects of management practices and natural processes on phosphorus (the apparent growth-limiting nutrient), copper, and algal concentrations in the terminal reservoirs to provide information that can be used to develop alternative management strategies for the terminal reservoirs. Initial parts of the research evaluated circulation and stratification in the reservoirs because these factors affect phosphorus availability to algae. Results indicate that (1) water flows through both reservoirs in a 'plug-flow' manner; (2) little water in the lower part of Lee Hall Reservoir, into which pumped water enters, flows into the upper part of the reservoir and mixes with that water; (3) Lee Hall Reservoir generally does not stratify; and (4) Harwoods Mill Reservoir stratifies from April to June through September or October into an upper epilimnion that does not mix with water in the lower hypolimnion. The ratio of dissolved nitrogen to phosphorus concentrations (N:P) for sites in both reservoirs generally was greater than 20:1, indicating that phosphorus likely is the growth-limiting nutrient in both reservoirs. Phosphorus was present predominantly as suspended, rather than dissolved, species except in the hypolimnion of Harwoods Mill Reservoir and the natural inflow represented by Baptist Run. Because Harwoods Mill Reservoir stratified, field-measured physical and chemical characteristics and concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus species changed sharply over short depth intervals in this reservoir. Dissolved phosphorus concentration increased from 0.015 to 0.057 milligrams per liter between a depth of 15 feet (ft) and the bottom (depth of 18 ft), indicating the release of phosphorus by the decomposition of organic material and(or) the reduction of iron oxides in bed sediment and the lower water column. Because the mixing boundary between the epilimnion and the hypolimnion likely was between depths of 6 and 10 ft, such sources in the hypolimnion would not contribute phosphorus to the growth of algae in the epilimnion from which water is withdrawn for supply until the breakdown of stratification in the fall. Furthermore, laboratory studies of samples from both reservoirs indicated that dissolved phosphorus was released from suspended particles at rates of 0.0007 to 0.0019 milligrams per liter per day. At these rates of release, particl

Scientific Investigations Report↗
USGS1983

Effect of urbanization on the water resources of Warminster Township, Bucks County, Pennsylvania

Rapid suburban development occurred in Warminster Township and the surrounding area after World War II, resulting in a large population dependent on ground water. In 1980, approximately 2.7 billion gallons of ground water was pumped by public water suppliers and government facilities. Pumping wells can cause drawdown as far as 2,500 feet undip, downdip, or along strike even if the wells do not penetrate the same strata. Pumping wells have lowered base flow; a stream-gain-and-loss study showed that water lost from Little Neshaminy Creek was about 60 percent of the water pumped from wells near the stream. Net ground-water infiltration to sewers was about 830 million gallons in 1979, a wet year, and about 250 million gallons in 1980, a dry year. Estimated water budgets for 1979 and 1980 indicate evapotranspiration can range from 20 to 26 inches per year (1.0 to 1.2 million gallons per day per square mile) and recharge can range from 8 to 18 inches per year (0.4 to 0.9 million gallons per day per square mile). In a year with average precipitation (45 inches or 2.1 million gallons per day per square mile), evapotranspiration is about 24 inches (1.1 million gallons per day per square mile). Ground-water development in the area influenced by pumping is at its practical limit for years of average recharge, but as much as 1.1 million gallons per day of additional water may be obtained by drilling and pumping wells in areas of Warminster Township not affected by pumping. The concentration of most dissolved constituents increased in water from seven wells, sampled at the onset of urbanization in 1953 and 1956 and again in 1979. Ground-water contamination by volatile organic compounds, especially trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene, has made water from some wells unsuitable for public supply. The concentration of lead in 26 samples of ground water ranged from 0 to 55 micrograms per liter, with a median of 17 micrograms per liter; this is above the reported national median and the median in nearby Chester County. High concentrations of sulfate and dissolved solids in ground water are probably caused by restricted gournd-water circulation and may be reduced by long-term pumping, which flushes the aquifer. Effluent from sewage treatment plants has degraded the quality of low streamflow.

Pennsylvania↗
USGS2016

Integrated water flow model and modflow-farm process: A comparison of theory, approaches, and features of two integrated hydrologic models

Effective modeling of conjunctive use of surface and subsurface water resources requires simulation of land use-based root zone and surface flow processes as well as groundwater flows, streamflows, and their interactions. Recently, two computer models developed for this purpose, the Integrated Water Flow Model (IWFM) from the California Department of Water Resources and the MODFLOW with Farm Process (MF-FMP) from the US Geological Survey, have been applied to complex basins such as the Central Valley of California. As both IWFM and MFFMP are publicly available for download and can be applied to other basins, there is a need to objectively compare the main approaches and features used in both models. This paper compares the concepts, as well as the method and simulation features of each hydrologic model pertaining to groundwater, surface water, and landscape processes. The comparison is focused on the integrated simulation of water demand and supply, water use, and the flow between coupled hydrologic processes. The differences in the capabilities and features of these two models could affect the outcome and types of water resource problems that can be simulated.

California Natural Resources Agency↗
USGS2012

Water resources of Allen Parish

In 2005, approximately 29.2 million gallons per day (Mgal/d) of water were withdrawn in Allen Parish, Louisiana, including about 26.8 Mgal/d from groundwater sources and 2.45 Mgal/d from surface-water sources. Rice irrigation accounted for 74 percent (21.7 Mgal/d) of the total water withdrawn. Other categories of use included public supply, industrial, rural domestic, livestock, general irrigation, and aquaculture. Water-use data collected at 5-year intervals from 1960 to 2005 indicate water withdrawals in the parish were greatest in 1960 (119 Mgal/d) and 1980 (98.7 Mgal/d). The substantial decrease in surface-water use between 1960 and 1965 is primarily attributable to rice-irrigation withdrawals declining from 61.2 to 6.74 Mgal/d. This fact sheet summarizes information on the water resources of Allen Parish, La. Information on groundwater and surface-water availability, quality, development, use, and trends is based on previously published reports listed in the Selected References section.

Louisiana↗
USGS1991

Water withdrawals in the Black Warrior-Tombigbee Basin and Alcorn County, Mississippi, 1985-87

Public-supply and industrial water withdrawals were inventoried for the Mississippi part of the Black Warrior-Tombigbee Basin and for Alcorn County, Mississippi. The study area, located in the northeastern part of the State, is largely forested or agricultural land, with some industries near the larger towns. A water-resource capacity analysis was done to determine a risk rating for each inventoried facility, evaluating the likelihood of the facility exceeding the capacity of its current source of water at the existing level of use. Published reports and potentiometric maps were used in this analysis to determine the source capacity and the effects withdrawals have had on each water source. The public-supply and industrial water withdrawals in the basin are from ground water, with the exception of the city of Columbus. About 97 percent of the total withdrawal of 80 million gallons per day is from ground water. Water-supply systems in three areas were determined to have a high risk of exceeding the water-resource capacity: the Tupelo-Lee County area, the West Point (Clay County) area, and the Starkville (Oktibbeha County) area.

Mississippi↗
USGS1990

Geology and ground-water resources of the Cockfield Formation in western Tennessee

The Cockfield Formation of the Claiborne Group of Tertiary age underlies approximately 4,000 sq mi in western Tennessee. The formation consists primarily of lenticular beds of very fine to coarse sand, silt, clay, and lignite. The Cockfield Formation has been extensively eroded, and the original thickness is preserved only in a few areas where the formation ranges from 235 to 270 ft in thickness. Recharge to the Cockfield aquifer is from precipitation on sparse outcrops or by downward infiltration of water from the overlying fluvial deposits of Tertiary and Quaternary age and alluvium of Quaternary age or, where present, the overlying Jackson Formation of Tertiary age. Data from two observation wells indicate that water levels have risen at average rates of about 0.5 and 0.7 ft/year during the period 1980-85. Water from the Cockfield aquifer is a calcium bicarbonate type that contains low concentrations of most major constituents, and generally is suitable for most uses. Dissolved-solids concentrations range from 44 to 218 mg/L. Data from two aquifer tests indicate transmissivities of 2,500 and 6 ,000 sq ft/day and storage coefficients of 0.0003 and 0.0007, respectively. The Cockfield aquifer presently provides small to moderate quantities of water for several public and industrial water supplies and small quantities to numerous domestic and farm wells. Withdrawals for public and industrial supplies in 1983 averaged about 3.3 million gal/day. (USGS)

Tennessee↗
USGS2013

Water resources of St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana

In 2010, about 261 million gallons per day (Mgal/d) of water were withdrawn in St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana, almost entirely from surface-water sources. Industrial use accounted for about 97 percent (253 Mgal/d) of the total water withdrawn. Other categories of use included public supply, rural domestic, and livestock. Water-use data collected at 5-year intervals from 1960 to 2010 indicated that total water withdrawals in the parish ranged from about 138 to 720 Mgal/d, with industrial use of surface water making up the bulk of water withdrawals. The large decline in surface-water withdrawals from 1980 to 1985 was largely attributable to a decrease in industrial use from 654 Mgal/d in 1980 to 127 Mgal/d in 1985. This fact sheet summarizes basic information on the water resources of St. Bernard Parish. Information on groundwater and surface-water availability, quality, development, use, and trends is based on previously published reports listed in the Selected References section.

Louisiana↗
USGS2014

Predictive Management of Asian Carps in the Upper Mississippi River System

Prolific non-native organisms pose serious threats to ecosystems and economies worldwide. Nonnative bighead carp ( Hypophthalmichthys nobilis ) and silver carp ( H. molitrix ), collectively referred to as Asian carps, continue to colonize aquatic ecosystems throughout the central United States. These species are r-selected, exhibiting iteroparous spawning, rapid growth, broad environmental tolerance, high density, and long-distance movement. Hydrological, thermal, and physicochemical conditions are favorable for establishment beyond the current range, rendering containment and control imperative. Ecological approaches to confine Asian carp populations and prevent colonization characterize contemporary management in the United States. Foraging and reproduction of Asian carps govern habitat selection and movement, providing valuable insight for predictive control. Current management approaches are progressive and often anticipatory but deficient in human dimensions. We define predictive management of Asian carps as synthesis of ecology and human dimensions at regional and local scales to develop strategies for containment and control. We illustrate predictive management in the Upper Mississippi River System and suggest resource managers integrate predictive models, containment paradigms, and human dimensions to design effective, socially acceptable management strategies. Through continued research, university-agency collaboration, and public engagement, predictive management of Asian carps is an auspicious paradigm for preventing and alleviating consequences of colonization in the United States.

Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture↗
USGS2016

Rare earths: Market disruption, innovation, and global supply chains

Rare earths, sometimes called the vitamins of modern materials, captured public attention when their prices increased more than ten-fold in 2010 and 2011. As prices fell between 2011 and 2016, rare earths receded from public view—but less visibly they became a major focus of innovative activity in companies, government laboratories and universities. Geoscientists worked to better understand the resource base and improve our knowledge about mineral deposits that will be mines in the future. Process engineers carried out research that is making primary production and recycling more efficient. Materials scientists and engineers searched for substitutes that will require fewer or no rare earths while providing properties comparable or superior to those of existing materials. As a result, even though global supply chains are not significantly different now than they were before the market disruption, the innovative activity motivated by the disruption likely will have far-reaching, if unpredictable, consequences for supply chains of rare earths in the future.

Environment and Resources↗
USGS2007

10th Anniversary of the 1997 Red River Flood

The 1997 flood on the Red River was one of the worst natural disasters in recent history for many people and communities in the Red River of the North Basin. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), one of the principal Federal agencies responsible for the collection and interpretation of water-resources data, works with other Federal, State, local, tribal, and academic entities to ensure that accurate and timely data are available for making decisions regarding public welfare and property during natural disasters and to increase public awareness of the hazards that occur with such disasters.

General Information Product↗
USGS2007

A history of flooding in the Red River Basin

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), one of the principal Federal agencies responsible for the collection and interpretation of water-resources data, works with other Federal, State, local, tribal, and academic entities to ensure that accurate and timely data are available for making decisions regarding public welfare and property during natural disasters and to increase public awareness of the hazards that occur with such disasters. The Red River of the North Basin has a history of flooding and this poster is designed to increase public awareness of that history and of the factors that contribute to flooding.

Red River Basin↗
USGS2023

Quality of groundwater used for domestic supply in the Modesto, Turlock, and Merced Subbasins of the San Joaquin Valley, California

Summary More than 2 million Californians rely on groundwater from privately owned domestic wells for drinking-water supply. This report summarizes a water-quality survey of domestic and small-system drinking-water supply wells in the Modesto, Turlock, and Merced subbasins of the San Joaquin Valley where more than 78,000 residents are estimated to use privately owned domestic wells. Results indicate that inorganic and organic constituents in groundwater were respectively present above regulatory (maximum contaminant level, MCL) benchmarks for public drinking-water quality in 37 percent and 9 percent of the aquifer area used for domestic drinking-water supplies (herein, “domestic groundwater resources”). The most prevalent inorganic constituents exceeding regulatory benchmarks were nitrate, uranium, and arsenic. The only organic constituents exceeding regulatory benchmarks were the fumigant constituents 1,2,3-trichloropropane (1,2,3-TCP) and 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP), but the herbicides atrazine and simazine were detected at low concentrations below one-tenth of regulatory benchmarks in 30 percent of domestic groundwater resources. Total dissolved solids (TDS) and manganese exceeded aesthetic-based (secondary maximum contaminant level [SMCL]) benchmarks for drinking water in 3 percent and 13 percent of domestic groundwater resources, respectively. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) were detected in 23 percent of domestic groundwater resources, with 4 percent exceeding California state notification or response levels for specific compounds. Total coliform bacteria were detected in 20 percent of domestic groundwater resources. Elevated concentrations of nitrate, uranium, TDS, and pesticides (fumigant constituents and herbicides) are related to agricultural land use and were typically present at shallow depths up to 75 meters below land surface. Agriculturally derived constituents were detected in wells screened below the Corcoran Clay Member of the Tulare Formation (herein, “Corcoran Clay”) in the southeastern part of the study area, where the Corcoran Clay tends to be shallower and thinner than in areas to the northwest. Nitrate, uranium, and TDS were most prevalent in the northwest part of the study area proximal to the valley trough where soils are poorly drained and agricultural land uses are predominantly grain, alfalfa, and dairy farms. Pesticides tended to occur in groundwater below coarse-grained surficial deposits and within a northwest to southeast trending band along the eastern extent of the Corcoran Clay that typically demarcates the western extent of well-drained soils associated with perennial orchard crops. Elevated concentrations of arsenic tended to occur west of this band in reducing groundwater but also sometimes co-occurred with elevated nitrate in oxic groundwater, most likely because of geochemical conditions in agriculturally affected groundwater that can enhance the mobility of arsenic from aquifer sediments.

California↗
USGS2024

Quality of groundwater used for domestic supply in the eastern Sacramento Valley and adjacent foothills, California

Summary More than 2 million Californians rely on groundwater from privately owned domestic wells for drinking-water supply. This report summarizes a water-quality survey of domestic and small-system drinking-water supply wells in the eastern Sacramento Valley and adjacent foothills where more than 25,000 residents are estimated to use privately owned domestic wells. Study results show that inorganic and organic constituents in groundwater were present above regulatory (maximum contaminant level, MCL) benchmarks for public drinking-water quality in 8 and 3 percent, respectively, of the aquifer area used for domestic drinking-water supply (herein, “domestic groundwater resources”; fig. 1). The only inorganic constituent detected above regulatory benchmarks was arsenic. The only organic constituent exceeding regulatory benchmarks was the fumigant 1,2,3-trichloropropane (1,2,3-TCP). Three additional organic constituents—the disinfection by-product chloroform, the gasoline oxygenate methyl tert -butyl ether (MTBE), and the solvent tetrachloroethene (PCE)—were detected at low concentrations below one-tenth of regulatory benchmarks in 34, 10, and 10 percent of domestic groundwater resources, respectively. Total dissolved solids (TDS), iron, and manganese exceeded non-regulatory aesthetic guidelines for drinking water in 5, 10, and 26 percent of domestic groundwater resources, respectively. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) were detected in 29 percent of domestic groundwater resources,with 5 percent exceeding the recently enacted (April 2024) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency MCLs. Total coliform and enterococci bacteria were detected in 13 and 8 percent of domestic groundwater resources, respectively. Redox sensitive constituents in this study included arsenic, manganese, nitrate, and iron. In the lower elevation portions of the eastern Sacramento Valley study area, reducing conditions in groundwater aquifers promote elevated arsenic, iron, and manganese, and conversely lower concentrations of nitrate. The presence of the volatile organic compound (VOC) 1,2,3-TCP was related to its past history in select agricultural land uses (on orchards or vineyards) in the Sacramento Valley; however, unlike in the San Joaquin Valley where orchards and vineyards are more common, its detection frequency was low (only detected in one well in this study). Chloroform was frequently detected in this study at low levels. Chloroform is a disinfection byproduct commonly found in domestic wells treated by shock chlorination. The solvent PCE is among the most frequently detected VOCs in groundwater, which is primarily related to its long history of use and its persistence in groundwater in oxic conditions. The gasoline oxygenate MTBE was a contaminant introduced to groundwater through atmospheric exchange when it was used as a fuel additive to decrease smog inducing emissions from vehicles. Its occurrence in groundwater at low levels is expected and makes it a potentially useful tracer of relatively recent recharge water being withdrawn from wells. The PFASs are anthropogenic chemicals with hundreds of uses, and they have been incorporated into many different products, processes, and applications worldwide. Like MTBE, the occurrence of PFASs in groundwater may be in part due to atmospheric exchange, but there are several other pathways that contribute PFASs to the environment.

California↗
USGS1957

Irrigation in northeastern Mississippi

The phenomenal increase in the use of water for agriculture, industry, and public water supply in the past few years has been an important factor in bringing about the current accelerated inventory and appraisal of the water resources of Mississippi. As a result of severe droughts during the past several years, and of the favorable results of experiments, the water resources of northeastern Mississippi today are rapidly being developed for irrigation. Records have shown that even during years of normal rainfall the distribution of the rain usually is such that supplementary irrigation can be profitably practiced on almost any crop. Although in northeaster Mississippi the annual precipitation generally is enough to support crops and pasture, short periods of drought are common. Supplemental irrigation protects against the periods of drought during the growing season and increases the yield and quality of crops.

Mississippi↗
USGS2005

Water resources and the urban environment, lower Charles River watershed, Massachusetts, 1630-2005

The Charles River, one of the Nation’s most historically significant rivers, flows through the center of the Boston metropolitan region in eastern Massachusetts. The lower Charles River, downstream of the original head of tide in Watertown, was originally a productive estuary and important source of fish and shellfish for the Native Americans of the region. This portion of the river has an exceptionally long and colorful human history. In 1615, the explorer Captain John Smith gave the river its modern name, in honor of young Prince Charles of England. In 1617–18, the Native American community of the watershed was decimated by an epidemic, after having continuously occupied the area for the previous 4,000 years. In 1630, the first large group of English settlers, led by John Winthrop, set foot on the Shawmut Peninsula at the mouth of the river, and established the town of Boston. In the 1630s, the first printing press, public park, public school, and college in the English colonies were all established on the banks of the Charles River. Almost immediately, the settlers of Boston and adjacent towns also began to modify the landscape and water resources of the watershed. Perhaps the most important type of landscape alteration in the watershed was the filling of the extensive salt marshes and tidal flats of the estuary downstream of Watertown. This landmaking activity along the lower Charles River began in the mid-1600s, and did not conclude until the 1950s. In the early 20th century, the estuary mouth was dammed, creating a freshwater basin in the lower 9.5 miles of the river. A system of parks and parkways was built along the banks of the impounded river. In addition to the mainstem river, virtually all of the remaining water resources in the watershed have also been altered. Most of the river’s tributaries, for example, were culverted, or placed into tunnels, and many of the ponds and freshwater wetlands in the watershed were filled to facilitate urban development. One additional legacy of the river’s long human history is pollution from industry and sewage. By 1875, a total of 43 mills were operating along the lower Charles River between Watertown Dam and Boston Harbor. Thousands of gallons of untreated sewage and industrial wastewater entered the river daily through gravity drains, posing a major threat to public health. Concerted efforts to address the sewage problem began in the late 1870s. By the 1960s, the water quality of the river was significantly improved, yet still not suitable for swimming, fishing, or even boating under most conditions. In 1965, the Charles River Watershed Association was organized and the call to restore the environmental quality of the river and its parklands was heard anew. Passage of the Federal Clean Water Act in 1972 and the subsequent court-ordered reconstruction of the region’s sewage-treatment infrastructure in the 1980s and 1990s (the “Boston Harbor Cleanup”) provided additional impetus to address the river’s remaining pollution problems. In 1995, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency launched the Clean Charles 2005 Initiative, which brought together government agencies, private-sector institutions, and environmental organizations to focus on restoring the river to fishable and swimmable conditions by Earth Day 2005. This initiative has achieved substantial improvements in water quality; sewage discharges to the river, for example, have been largely eliminated. Nevertheless, it is now widely acknowledged that full attainment of water-quality standards will likely depend upon improved public understanding of the watershed, continued efforts to eliminate illicit sewage discharges to the river, and better management of the urban runoff that enters the river both directly and from its many tributary streams.

Massachusetts↗