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At least 145 records · Page 8Linked to original sources
USGS2014

Mount Rainier National Park

Natural Resource Condition Assessments (NRCAs) evaluate current conditions for a subset of natural resources and resource indicators in national parks. NRCAs also report on trends in resource condition (when possible), identify critical data gaps, and characterize a general level of confidence for study findings. The resources and indicators emphasized in a given project depend on the park’s resource setting, status of resource stewardship planning and science in identifying high-priority indicators, and availability of data and expertise to assess current conditions for a variety of potential study resources and indicators. Although the primary objective of NRCAs is to report on current conditions relative to logical forms of reference conditions and values, NRCAs also report on trends, when appropriate (i.e., when the underlying data and methods support such reporting), as well as influences on resource conditions. These influences may include past activities or conditions that provide a helpful context for understanding current conditions and present-day threats and stressors that are best interpreted at park, watershed, or landscape scales (though NRCAs do not report on condition status for land areas and natural resources beyond park boundaries). Intensive cause-andeffect analyses of threats and stressors, and development of detailed treatment options, are outside the scope of NRCAs. It is also important to note that NRCAs do not address resources that lack sufficient data for assessment. For Mount Rainier National Park, this includes most invertebrate species and many other animal species that are subject to significant stressors from climate change and other anthropogenic sources such as air pollutants and recreational use. In addition, we did not include an analysis of the physical hydrology associated with streams (such as riverine landforms, erosion and aggradation which is significant in MORA streams), due to a loss of staff expertise from the USGS-BRD staff conducting the work, and human disturbance landcover issues such as the effects of roads, trails, and other anthropogenic developments due to lack of funds.

Report↗
USGS2021

A comparison of Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager and Provisional Aquatic Reflectance science product, Sentinel–2B, and WorldView–3 imagery for empirical satellite-derived bathymetry, Unalakleet, Alaska

Satellite-derived bathymetry (SDB) based upon an empirical band ratio method is a cost-effective means for mapping nearshore bathymetry in coastal areas vulnerable to natural hazards. This is particularly important for the low-lying coastal community of Unalakleet, Alaska, that has been negatively affected not only by flooding, storm surge, and historically strong storms but also by high erosion rates stemming from the Unalakleet River and Norton Sound. The purpose of this study was to assess the viability of different satellite imagery, including Landsat 8 (L8) Operational Land Imager, Sentinel–2B, WorldView–3, and L8 Provisional Aquatic Reflectance science product, for deriving SDB for Unalakleet, Alaska. Correlations were performed between satellite imagery band ratios and topobathymetric (topobathy) light detection and ranging (lidar) and in situ single-beam sound navigation and ranging (sonar). The satellite imagery correlations with topobathy lidar did not yield as high of a linear relation with water depths as the satellite imagery correlations with the single-beam sonar. An extinction depth, where light no longer attenuates through the water column, was not identified because of the shallow depths within the topobathy lidar and single-beam sonar datasets. Although some single-beam soundings measured at 7 meters deep, the correlations with the SDB band ratios did not yield a strong linear relation. Satellite imagery band ratio correlations with Electronic Navigational Chart soundings did not yield a strong linear relation because of older source data. Less than optimal linear regressions were most likely due to the geography of Unalakleet, Alaska, a low-lying coastal community subject to high erosion rates from surrounding waters. This study is one of the first attempts to compare different satellite imagery band ratio correlations with topobathy lidar and in situ sonar to assess the viability for nearshore SDB for coastal Unalakleet, Alaska.

Alaska↗
USGS2005

Visitor and community survey results for Kilauea Point National Wildlife Refuge and Lighthouse: Completion report

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and the Central Federal Lands Highway Division of the Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation are currently pursuing the planning and potential design of an alternative transportation system (ATS) for Kilauea Point National Wildlife Refuge (Refuge or Kilauea Point NWR). The USFWS and CFLHD seek an alternative transportation solution that provides the highest quality visitor experience and is sensitive to biological and cultural resources and the needs of the local community. In planning the alternative transportation system, managers need to consider how an ATS would change factors such as visitor access, visitor experience, visitor willingness to pay, and visitor net economic benefits. The Policy Analysis and Science Assistance branch (PASA) at the U.S. Geological Survey Fort Collins Science Center is dedicated to studying relations between humans and the environment. The objective of PASA is to conduct studies to understand how humans are affected by environmental management decisions and how human activities impact use and conservation of natural resources.

Hawaii↗
USGS2016

What do we really know about the role of microorganisms in iron sulfide mineral formation?

Iron sulfide mineralization in low-temperature systems is a result of biotic and abiotic processes, though the delineation between these two modes of formation is not always straightforward. Here we review the role of microorganisms in the precipitation of extracellular iron sulfide minerals. We summarize the evidence that links sulfur-metabolizing microorganisms and sulfide minerals in nature and we present a critical overview of laboratory-based studies of the nucleation and growth of iron sulfide minerals in microbial cultures. We discuss whether biologically derived minerals are distinguishable from abiotic minerals, possessing attributes that are uniquely diagnostic of biomineralization. These inquiries have revealed the need for additional thorough, mechanistic and high-resolution studies to understand microbially mediated formation of a variety of sulfide minerals across a range of natural environments.

Frontiers in Earth Science↗
USGS2005

Attitudinal survey component of the study Quantity, quality, and support for research in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: An organizational assessment : Report of methods and frequencies

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) is responsible for managing the Nation’s fish and wildlife resources so that these trust resources are preserved for the present and future use and enjoyment of the citizens of the United States. The FWS achieves this mission by managing many programs. These include the national system of refuges and fish hatcheries, Fish and Wildlife Management Assistance Offices, migratory birds program, law enforcement, and working with tribal, state, and other Federal agencies to ensure protection of threatened and endangered species. Another role of the FWS is consulting with tribal, state, and other Federal agencies and private sector interests on the best conservation management practices consistent with Federal law. Each of these activities requires a workforce that is recognized for its professionalism, dedication to public service, and command of expert knowledge. Recognition for expert knowledge in fish and wildlife conservation is demonstrated, in part, when FWS personnel direct, conduct, or report research that is well-designed to answer questions of importance for natural resource management. The data reported in this document are one part of a three-part study of the status of organizational support for research in FWS, which was commissioned by the Directorate of the FWS. Funding for this study was provided by the FWS, and the Science Support Program of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). In 1994, the biological research functions of the FWS were transferred to the National Biological Survey, and subsequently into the USGS. This transfer was principally accomplished by moving whole research units from one agency to another. The result was that some employees whose positions were involved with research were not transferred. In addition, some research, information, and management needs of the FWS have continued to be met by studies conducted within the FWS itself. Although the FWS relies on the USGS and others for most basic research investigations, the FWS also conducts its own studies to meet management needs. Because it is vital for FWS employees to be able to conduct such tactical and applied research tasks in a timely manner, the agency must promote the culture necessary to support and encourage these activities. Such research activities are spread widely across the various programs of the FWS, and there is presently no collective, formal, or systematic record of planned or existing research activities. In commissioning this organizational assessment research, the Directorate of the FWS recognized that it would be to the advantage of the agency to more fully understand its research capacity. To develop a clearer picture of the nature, extent, quality, and degree of administrative support available for conducting research within the FWS, investigations have been undertaken to: 1. identify positions in the FWS that may include, in whole or in part, a component of scientific research; 2. identify organizational units within the FWS that may conduct research as a significant portion of their mission; and 3. assess the attitudes of employees and managers about the obstacles and opportunities for scientific research existing within the FWS by using a scaled-response survey instrument. The findings presented in this report represent the basic results derived from the attitude assessment survey conducted in the last quarter of 2004. The findings set forth in this report are the frequency distributions for each question in the survey instrument for all respondents. The only statistics provided are descriptive in character - namely, means and associated standard deviations.

Open-File Report↗
USGS2000

Alachlor transformation patterns in aquatic field mesocosms under variable oxygen and nutrient conditions

Alachlor is one of the most commonly used herbicides in both Europe and North America. Because of its toxic properties, its fate and attenuation in natural waters is practically important. This paper assesses factors that affect alachlor decay rate in aquatic systems using field-scale experimental units. In particular, we used field mesocosms (11.3 m3 outdoor fiberglass tanks) to examine the affect of oxygen level and other factors on decay rate in water columns. This is one of the first studies ever performed where diverse water column conditions have been successfully simulated using common mesocosm-scale facilities. Four treatments were assessed, including aerobic systems (aerobic); low nutrient, oxygen-stratified systems (stratified-LN); moderate nutrient, oxygen-stratified systems (stratified-HN); and anaerobic systems (anaerobic). The lowest half-lives were observed in the anaerobic units (9.7 days) followed by the aerobic (21 days), stratified-HN (22 days), and stratified-LN (46 days) units. Our results indicate that alachlor is transformed most rapidly under anaerobic conditions, although the ambient phosphorus level also appears to influence decay rate. In this study, two common alachlor breakdown products, ethane sulfonic acid (ESA) and oxanilic acid, were also monitored. Oxanilic acid was produced in greater quantities than ESA under all treatments with the highest levels being produced in the stratified-HN units. In general, our results suggest that previous laboratory data, which indicated that high rates of alachlor decay can occur under oxygen-free methanogenic conditions, is translatable to field-scale applications. Copyright (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd.Alachlor is one of the most commonly used herbicides in both Europe and North America. Because of its toxic properties, its fate and attenuation in natural waters is practically important. This paper assesses factors that affect alachlor decay rate in aquatic systems using field-scale experimental units. In particular, we used field mesocosms (11.3 m3 outdoor fiberglass tanks) to examine the affect of oxygen level and other factors on decay rate in water columns. This is one of the first studies ever performed where diverse water column conditions have been successfully simulated using common mesocosm-scale facilities. Four treatments were assessed, including aerobic systems (aerobic); low nutrient, oxygen-stratified systems (stratified-LN); moderate nutrient, oxygen-stratified systems (stratified-HN); and anaerobic systems (anaerobic). The lowest half-lives were observed in the anaerobic units (9.7 days) followed by the aerobic (21 days), stratified-HN (22 days), and stratified-LN (46 days) units. Our results indicate that alachlor is transformed most rapidly under anaerobic conditions, although the ambient phosphorus level also appears to influence decay rate. In this study, two common alachlor breakdown products, ethane sulfonic acid (ESA) and oxanilic acid, were also monitored. Oxanilic acid was produced in greater quantities than ESA under all treatments with the highest levels being produced in the stratified-HN units. In general, our results suggest that previous laboratory data, which indicated that high rates of alachlor decay can occur under oxygen-free methanogenic conditions, is translatable to field-scale applications.Aquatic field mesocosms were used to examine the influence of DO concentration and the presence of nutrients on alachlor transformation. Four treatments were used: wholly aerobic water columns, thermally and oxygen stratified water columns with low nutrient levels, stratified water columns with moderate nutrient levels, and wholly anaerobic water columns. The anaerobic treatment produced the highest rate of alachlor decay, followed by the aerobic and stratified treatments. The lowest decay rate occurred in the aerobic, low-nutrient stratified units.

Water Research↗
USGS2010

Studies from the history of soil science and geology

The United Nations proclaimed the year 2008 as the official International Year of Planet Earth (IYPE), with science and outreach activities spanning 2007–2009. IYPE-sponsored outreach helped focus the attention of the general public on topics such as human health and the environment; ocean and natural resources sustainability; mitigating natural hazards and community resilience; and the effects of climate change. Within the earth science community, the IYPE was a stimulus for retrospection, and for efforts aimed at bridging divides within the community. One such effort was the first joint meeting of the Geological Society of America (GSA) and the Soil Science Society of America (SSSA), held in Houston, Texas, 5–9 October 2008.

Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C↗
USGS2012

Seasonal activity and morphological changes in martian gullies

Recent studies of martian dune and non-dune gullies have suggested a seasonal control on present-day gully activity. The timing of current gully activity, especially activity involving the formation or modification of channels (which commonly have been taken as evidence of fluvial processes), has important implications regarding likely gully formation processes and necessary environmental conditions. In this study, we describe the results of frequent meter-scale monitoring of several active gully sites by the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). The aim is to better assess the scope and nature of current morphological changes and to provide improved constraints on timing of gully activity on both dune and non-dune slopes. Our observations indicate that (1) gully formation on Mars is ongoing today and (2) the most significant morphological changes are strongly associated with seasonal frost and defrosting activity. Observed changes include formation of all major components of typical gully landforms, although we have not observed alcove formation in coherent bedrock. These results reduce the need to invoke recent climate change or present-day groundwater seepage to explain the many martian gullies with pristine appearance.

Icarus↗
USGS2006

Integrated Science: Providing a More Complete Understanding of Complex Problems

Integration among sciences is critical in order to address some of our most pressing problems. Because of the inherent complexity of natural systems, and the increasing complexity of human demands on them, narrowly-focused approaches are no longer sufficient. USGS Workshop on Enhancing Integrated Science, November 1998. The Mid-Continent Geographic Science Center is actively participating in several integrated science studies that include research partners from the other disciplines of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), other Federal and State agencies, universities, and private non-government organizations. The following three examples illustrate the diversity of these studies.

Fact Sheet↗
USGS2021

Earthcasting: Geomorphic forecasts for society

Over the last several decades, the study of Earth surface processes has progressed from a descriptive science to an increasingly quantitative one due to advances in theoretical, experimental, and computational geosciences. The importance of geomorphic forecasts has never been greater, as technological development and global climate change threaten to reshape the landscapes that support human societies and natural ecosystems. Here we explore best practices for developing socially relevant forecasts of Earth surface change, a goal we are calling “earthcasting”. We suggest that earthcasts have the following features: they focus on temporal (∼1–∼100 years) and spatial (∼1 m–∼10 km) scales relevant to planning; they are designed with direct involvement of stakeholders and public beneficiaries through the evaluation of the socioeconomic impacts of geomorphic processes; and they generate forecasts that are clearly stated, testable, and include quantitative uncertainties. Earthcasts bridge the gap between Earth surface researchers and decision-makers, stakeholders, researchers from other disciplines, and the general public. We investigate the defining features of earthcasts and evaluate some specific examples. This paper builds on previous studies of prediction in geomorphology by recommending a roadmap for (a) generating earthcasts, especially those based on modeling; (b) transforming a subset of geomorphic research into earthcasts; and (c) communicating earthcasts beyond the geomorphology research community. Earthcasting exemplifies the social benefit of geomorphology research, and it calls for renewed research efforts toward further understanding the limits of predictability of Earth surface systems and processes, and the uncertainties associated with modeling geomorphic processes and their impacts.

Earth's Future↗
USGS2018

Increased scientific rigor will improve reliability of research and effectiveness of management

Rigorous science that produces reliable knowledge is critical to wildlife management because it increases accurate understanding of the natural world and informs management decisions effectively. Application of a rigorous scientific method based on hypothesis testing minimizes unreliable knowledge produced by research. To evaluate the prevalence of scientific rigor in wildlife research, we examined 24 issues of the Journal of Wildlife Management from August 2013 through July 2016. We found 43.9% of studies did not state or imply a priori hypotheses, which are necessary to produce reliable knowledge. We posit that this is due, at least in part, to a lack of common understanding of what rigorous science entails, how it produces more reliable knowledge than other forms of interpreting observations, and how research should be designed to maximize inferential strength and usefulness of application. Current primary literature does not provide succinct explanations of the logic behind a rigorous scientific method or readily applicable guidance for employing it, particularly in wildlife biology; we therefore synthesized an overview of the history, philosophy, and logic that define scientific rigor for biological studies. A rigorous scientific method includes 1) generating a research question from theory and prior observations, 2) developing hypotheses (i.e., plausible biological answers to the question), 3) formulating predictions (i.e., facts that must be true if the hypothesis is true), 4) designing and implementing research to collect data potentially consistent with predictions, 5) evaluating whether predictions are consistent with collected data, and 6) drawing inferences based on the evaluation. Explicitly testing a priori hypotheses reduces overall uncertainty by reducing the number of plausible biological explanations to only those that are logically well supported. Such research also draws inferences that are robust to idiosyncratic observations and unavoidable human biases. Offering only post hoc interpretations of statistical patterns (i.e., a posteriori hypotheses) adds to uncertainty because it increases the number of plausible biological explanations without determining which have the greatest support. Further, post hoc interpretations are strongly subject to human biases. Testing hypotheses maximizes the credibility of research findings, makes the strongest contributions to theory and management, and improves reproducibility of research. Management decisions based on rigorous research are most likely to result in effective conservation of wildlife resources.

Journal of Wildlife Management↗
USGS2015

Getting ocean acidification on decision makers' to-do lists: dissecting the process through case studies

Much of the detailed, incremental knowledge being generated by current scientific research on ocean acidification (OA) does not directly address the needs of decision makers, who are asking broad questions such as: Where will OA harm marine resources next? When will this happen? Who will be affected? And how much will it cost? In this review, we use a series of mainly US-based case studies to explore the needs of local to international-scale groups that are making decisions to address OA concerns. Decisions concerning OA have been made most naturally and easily when information needs were clearly defined and closely aligned with science outputs and initiatives. For decisions requiring more complex information, the process slows dramatically. Decision making about OA is greatly aided (1) when a mixture of specialists participates, including scientists, resource users and managers, and policy and law makers; (2) when goals can be clearly agreed upon at the beginning of the process; (3) when mixed groups of specialists plan and create translational documents explaining the likely outcomes of policy decisions on ecosystems and natural resources; (4) when regional work on OA fits into an existing set of priorities concerning climate or water quality; and (5) when decision making can be reviewed and enhanced.

Oceanography↗
USGS2016

Joint analysis of geodetic and earthquake fault-plane solution data to constrain magmatic sources: A case study from Kīlauea Volcano

A joint analysis of geodetic and seismic datasets from Kīlauea Volcano during a period of magmatic unrest in 2006 demonstrates the effectiveness of this combination for testing and constraining models of magma dynamics for a complex, multi-source system. At the end of 2003, Kīlauea's summit began a four-year-long period of inflation due to a surge in magma supply to the volcano. In 2006, for the first time since 1982, Kīlauea's Southwest Rift Zone (SWRZ) also experienced inflation. To investigate the characteristics of active magma sources and the nature of their interactions with faults in the SWRZ during 2006, we integrate, through Coulomb stress modeling, contemporary geodetic data from InSAR and GPS with a new catalogue of double-couple fault-plane solutions for volcano-tectonic earthquakes. We define two periods of inflation during 2006 based on the rate of deformation measured in daily GPS data, spanning February to 15 March 2006 (Period 1) and 16 March to 30 September 2006 (Period 2). InSAR data for these two periods are inverted to determine the position, change in size, and shape of inflation sources in each period. Our new models are consistent with microseismic activity from each period. They suggest that, during Period 1, deformation in the SWRZ can be explained by pressurization of magma in a spherical reservoir beneath the south caldera, and that, during Period 2, magma was also aseismically intruded farther to the southwest into the SWRZ along a sub-horizontal plane. Our Coulomb stress analysis shows that the microseismicity recorded in the SWRZ is induced by overpressurization of the south caldera reservoir, and not by magma intrusion into the SWRZ. This study highlights the importance of a joint analysis of independent geophysical datasets to fully constrain the nature of magma accumulation.

Hawaii↗
USGS2024

Model predictions of global geologic hydrogen resources

Geologic hydrogen could be a low-carbon primary energy resource; however, the magnitude of Earth’s subsurface endowment has not yet been assessed. Knowledge of the occurrence and behavior of natural hydrogen on Earth has been combined with information from geologic analogs to construct a mass balance model to predict the resource potential. Given the associated uncertainty, stochastic model results predict a wide range of values for the potential in-place hydrogen resource [10 3 to 10 10 million metric tons (Mt)] with the most probable value of ~5.6 × 10 6 Mt. Although most of this hydrogen is likely to be impractical to recover, a small fraction (e.g., 1 × 10 5 Mt) would supply the projected hydrogen needed to reach net-zero carbon emissions for ~200 years. This amount of hydrogen contains more energy (~1.4 × 10 16 MJ) than all proven natural gas reserves on Earth (~8.4 × 10 15 MJ). Study results demonstrate that further research into understanding the potential for geologic hydrogen resources is merited.

Science Advances↗
USGS2025

Catalyzing change: A literature review on the implementation of the Nature Futures Framework

The Nature Futures Framework (NFF), developed under the Intergovernmental Science–Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), serves as a catalyst for advancing new scenarios and models focused on biodiversity and ecosystem services within the broader research community. In particular, the framework facilitates the development of scenarios and models that can help guide change processes toward desirable futures for nature and people. This paper assesses 31 studies that have engaged with the NFF since its introduction in 2020, aiming to identify which research areas have been addressed, and where development needs remain. The applications exhibit a large diversity in terms of locations, spatial scales, methods, outputs, and stakeholder involvement. The most common use of the framework has been in developing visions and scenarios. Nearly all studies engaged with diverse values of nature through the framework’s fundamental value perspectives: ‘Nature for Society’, ‘Nature for Nature’, and ‘Nature as Culture/One with Nature’. While the framework is generally perceived as useful, challenges remain in integrating the NFF across multiple scales and fully incorporating plural values, particularly in measuring relational aspects and avoiding Western-centric biases. Future research priorities include developing integrated, quantitative studies and exploring transformative pathways to enhance the framework's effectiveness in driving sustainable outcomes. Overall, the growing body of work using the NFF provides a strong foundation for distilling best practices, facilitating large-scale applications, and achieving the framework's objectives.

Sustainability Science↗
USGS2007

Disentangling the role of hybridization in the evolution of the endangered Arizona cliffrose (Purshia subintegra; Rosaceae): A molecular and morphological analysis

Hybridization may threaten the conservation status of rare species through genetic assimilation and may confound the ability to distinguish among taxa. We studied these issues in an endangered shrub, Purshia subintegra (Rosaceae), known from four populations growing on limestone outcrops in central Arizona (USA). Using amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP) and the Bayesian clustering algorithm implemented in STRUCTURE, we identified three distinct genetic lineages among Arizona Purshia subintegra and P. stansburiana. An initial split divided San Carlos Basin P. subintegra (considered P. pinkavae by Schaack) from northern P. stansburiana populations (FST = 0.394). A subsequent split separated northern P. stansburiana from two P. subintegra populations at Horseshoe Lake and Burro Creek (FST = 0.207), which comprised a nearly perfect admixture of the two lineages identified in the initial analysis. In the Verde River Valley P. subintegra is sympatric with P. stansburiana and exhibited an average 27% P. stansburiana genes for 5 of 6 stands analyzed, indicating ongoing hybridization and backcrossing with P. subintegra. Individuals carrying >90% P. subintegra markers are identifiable 68% of the time based on morphology, with leaf lobing, leaf size, and leaf length acting as the most reliable indicators of taxonomic status. However, the genetic and morphological distance correlation among individuals was low (r = 0.17, P = 0.0002), indicating that morphology cannot always accurately predict genetic admixture or taxonomy. Overall, our study confirmed the genetic distinctiveness of the San Carlos Basin population, an ancient natural hybrid origin of P. subintegra, and the presence of a hybrid swarm in the Verde Valley, whose conservation value may lie in its heightened genetic diversity. ?? 2007 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

Conservation Genetics↗
USGS2011

Biochar for soil fertility and natural carbon sequestration

Biochar is charcoal (similar to chars generated by forest fires) that is made for incorporation into soils to increase soil fertility while providing natural carbon sequestration. The incorporation of biochar into soils can preserve and enrich soils and also slow the rate at which climate change is affecting our planet. Studies on biochar, such as those cited by this report, are applicable to both fire science and soil science.

Fact Sheet↗
USGS2020

Book review of "Plant anatomy—A concept based approach to the structure of seed plants"

Plant Anatomy: A Concept-Based Approach to the Structure of Seed Plants by Crang, Lyons-Sobaski, and Wise is a beautifully-illustrated, 600+ page textbook highlighting the wonderful diversity of anatomical form in plants. The layout of the chapters follows many traditional plant anatomy textbooks. Plant Anatomy begins with an overview of plant morphology and proceeds through evolutionary time and across systems (Chapter 1. The Nature of Plants) before zooming into the microscopic, internal world of plant structures and their function (Chapter 2. Microscopy and Imaging through Chapter 8. Phloem). Quite fortunately, historical context is described throughout these sections, highlighting seminal studies that have shaped the plant sciences over the past 300+ years.

Plant Science Bulletin↗