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At least 1,387 records · Page 77Linked to original sources
USGS1978

Geochemical and generalized geologic map showing distribution and abundance of zinc in stream sediments in the Chandalar Quadrangle, Alaska

This geochemical map shows the distribution and abundance of zinc in -80 mesh (177 micrometers) stream sediment samples in the Chandalar quadrangle, Alaska. The map is a part of a series of geochemical maps that together with the background information circular (Reiser and others, 1978) comprise the folio on the Chandalar quadrangle, Alaska. The data are plotted on a subdued base map showing the generalized geology, topography, and sample localities. Map symbols show the metal values that are considered anomalous; these symbols are defined on the accompanying histograms. An explanation of sampling, preparation, analytical procedures and the geochemical raw data for all samples are presented by O'Leary and others (1976). The -80 mesh (177 micrometers) stream sediment medium was used in this study because of the regional setting in the north-central Brooks Range. Given the rather restrictive time and manpower constraints the -80 mesh (177 micrometers) stream sediment combined with panned concentrates was determined to be the most economical and adequate medium in this case where clastic sediments are being derived from local bedrock. The study area is generally one of high relief with short fast-moving streams and broad glacial valleys. All samples were taken from active streams, as close to the center channel as possible. All sediments were considered to be locally derived. Care was taken, when sampling an obviously glaciated terrane, to sample above or upstream from morainal material, wherever possible. Most samples were taken in areas where bedrock was within 30 m of the sample site. Due to poor sensitivity for zinc by spectrographic analysis (200 ppm) all zinc analyses were done by atomic absorption.

Alaska↗
USGS2009

Geochemistry of standard mine waters, Gunnison County, Colorado, July 2009

In many hard-rock-mining districts water flowing from abandoned mine adits is a primary source of metals to receiving streams. Understanding the generation of adit discharge is an important step in developing remediation plans. In 2006, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency listed the Standard Mine in the Elk Creek drainage basin near Crested Butte, Colorado as a superfund site because drainage from the Standard Mine enters Elk Creek, contributing dissolved and suspended loads of zinc, cadmium, copper, and other metals to the stream. Elk Creek flows into Coal Creek, which is a source of drinking water for the town of Crested Butte. In 2006 and 2007, the U.S. Geological Survey undertook a hydrogeologic investigation of the Standard Mine and vicinity and identified areas of the underground workings for additional work. Mine drainage, underground-water samples, and selected spring water samples were collected in July 2009 for analysis of inorganic solutes as part of a follow-up study. Water analyses are reported for mine-effluent samples from Levels 1 and 5 of the Standard Mine, underground samples from Levels 2 and 3 of the Standard Mine, two spring samples, and an Elk Creek sample. Reported analyses include field measurements (pH, specific conductance, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, and redox potential), major constituents and trace elements, and oxygen and hydrogen isotopic determinations. Overall, water samples collected in 2009 at the same sites as were collected in 2006 have similar chemical compositions. Similar to 2006, water in Level 3 did not flow out the portal but was observed to flow into open workings to lower parts of the mine. Many dissolved constituent concentrations, including calcium, magnesium, sulfate, manganese, zinc, and cadmium, in Level 3 waters substantially are lower than in Level 1 effluent. Concentrations of these dissolved constituents in water samples collected from Level 2 approach or exceed concentrations of Level 1 effluent suggesting that water-rock interaction between Levels 3 and 1 can account for the elevated concentration of metals and other constituents in Level 1 portal effluent. Ore minerals (sphalerite, argentiferous galena, and chalcopyrite) are the likely sources of zinc, cadmium, lead, and copper and are present within the mine in unmined portions of the vein system, within plugged ore chutes, and in muck piles.

Colorado↗
USGS1976

A reconnaissance of the effects of a forest fire on water quality in Kings Canyon National Park, California

Following two forest fires in the Roaring River drainage basin, Kings Canyon National Park, Calif., water samples were collected from May to July 1974 to determine water-quality changes resulting from the fires. Field measurements included alkalinity , pH, specific conductance, temperature, and discharge. Samples were analyzed in the laboratory for major dissolved chemical constituents, selected plant nutrients, trace metals, suspended sediment, total organic carbon, and seston. Periphytic algae and benthic invertebrate samples were collected. A noticeable increase in the concentration of nitrogen was found in Roaring River immediately downstream from the Moraine Creek fire. The increase in the concentration of inorganic nitrogen compounds, however, was not great enough to pose a serious threat to the aquatic ecosystem. High total organic nitrogen concentrations may have been due, in part, to factors other than the effect of fire. The results of other water-quality measurements were typical of dilute Sierra Nevada streams and indicate that Roaring River was not adversely affected by the fires. (Woodard-USGS)

Open-File Report↗
USGS1999

Characteristics of water-quality data for Lake Houston, selected tributary inflows to Lake Houston, and the Trinity River near Lake Houston (a potential source of interbasin transfer), August 1983-September 1990

Lake Houston, a reservoir completed in 1954 about 25 miles east-northeast of Houston, Texas, is a principal surface-water source for the city of Houston. The increase in water supply to meet future demands is expected to be accommodated by supplementing surface-water inflows to Lake Houston. The Trinity River is considered a potential source for interbasin transfer of water to Lake Houston. Before beginning to supplement inflows, the City needs to better understand the potential effects on Lake Houston water quality from streams that flow into or might contribute water to Lake Houston. During 1983–90, the USGS collected 3,727 water-quality samples from 27 sites in Lake Houston, 6 of the 7 main tributaries to the lake, and the Trinity River at Romayor. Longitudinal profiles of water temperature, dissolved oxygen, specific conductance, pH, and nutrients from the dam to the East and West Forks of Lake Houston constructed for a winter day and a summer day indicate that in general the lake water is mixed in the winter and stratified in the summer. The results of Mann-Whitney rank-sum tests to determine whether there were significant differences between summer and non-summer field measurements, 5-day biological oxygen demand, bacteria, physical and aesthetic properties, nutrients, organic carbon, chlorophyll a, and trace elements in the lake nearest the dam, the East Fork of the lake, and the West Fork of the lake at the same relative depth showed significant differences between summer and non-summer samples for at least one of the three locations at the same relative depth for all 15 properties and constituents tested except specific conductance. The test results indicate that in general Lake Houston is well mixed in the non-summer period and stratified with respect to selected properties and constituents in the summer. The results of rank-sum tests to determine whether there were significant differences between field measurements, 5-day biological oxygen demand, physical and aesthetic properties, nutrients, organic carbon, and chlorophyll a in the lake nearest the dam, the East Fork of the lake, and the West Fork of the lake for samples collected during the same season at the same relative depth showed that significant differences were common; generally, the West Fork had the largest median concentrations among the three locations. The tests comparing trace element concentrations between the lake nearest the dam and the East Fork showed mixed results—large median dissolved manganese concentrations in lake bottom samples in the summer and in East Fork near-surface samples in the non-summer period. The results of rank-sum tests comparing selected properties, 5-day biological oxygen demand, bacteria, nutrients, and total organic carbon in the eastern tributaries with those in the western tributaries, in the eastern tributaries with those in the Trinity River, and in the western tributaries with those in the Trinity River during the same season (summer or non-summer) at the same relative streamflow (low-medium or high) showed that significant differences were more common than not. In the comparisons of the eastern tributaries with the western tributaries that resulted in significant differences, medians of the western tributaries were larger for all properties and constituents except total organic carbon; in the comparisons of the eastern tributaries with the Trinity River that resulted in significant differences, medians were larger for the Trinity River in about 60 percent of the tests; and in the comparisons of the western tributaries with the Trinity River that resulted in significant differences, medians were larger for the western tributaries in about 60 percent of the tests. In the tests comparing trace elements between the eastern and western tributaries during the same season at the same relative streamflow, five of the eight tests showed no significant differences; between the eastern tributaries and the Trinity River, all eight tests showed significant differences, with eastern tributary medians larger in all tests; and between the western tributaries and the Trinity River, seven of the eight tests showed significant differences, with western tributary medians larger in all seven tests. The tests comparing selected properties, 5-day biological oxygen demand, nutrients, and total organic carbon between the eastern tributaries and the East Fork of Lake Houston, between the western tributaries and the West Fork of Lake Houston, and between the Trinity River and the lake nearest the dam, the East Fork, and the West Fork during the same season (summer or nonsummer) yielded significant differences in about 60 percent of the tests. No discernible pattern emerged to associate significant differences with season. In the tests comparing trace elements between the tributaries and the respective forks of the lake to which the tributaries drain, iron concentrations were significantly different in three of the four tests, with median concentrations larger in the tributaries. All the tests comparing manganese between the Trinity River and the three locations in the lake yielded significant differences, with larger median concentrations in the lake.

Texas↗
USGS2019

Streambed flux measurement informed by distributed temperature sensing leads to a significantly different characterization of groundwater discharge

Groundwater discharge though streambeds is often focused toward discrete zones, indicating that preliminary reconnaissance may be useful for capturing the full spectrum of groundwater discharge rates using point-scale quantitative methods. However, many direct-contact reconnaissance techniques can be time consuming, and remote sensing (e.g. thermal infrared) typically does not penetrate the water column to locate submerged seepages. In this study we tested whether dozens of groundwater discharge measurements made at "uninformed" (i.e., selected without knowledge on high-resolution temperature variations at the streambed) point locations along a reach would yield significantly different Darcy-based groundwater discharge rates when compared with “informed” measurements, focused at streambed thermal anomalies that were identified a-priori using fiber-optic distributed temperature sensing (FO-DTS). A non-parametric U-test showed a significant difference between median discharge rates for uninformed (0.05 m·d-1; n = 30) and informed (0.17 m·d-1; n = 20) measurement locations. Mean values followed a similar pattern (0.12 versus 0.27 m·d-1) and frequency distributions for uninformed and informed measurements were also significantly different based on a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Results suggest that even using a quick “snapshot-in-time” field analysis of FO-DTS data can be useful in streambeds with groundwater discharge rates <0.2 m·d-1, a lower threshold than proposed in a previous study. Collectively, study results highlight that FO-DTS is a powerful technique for identifying higher-discharge zones in streambeds, but the pros and cons of informed and uninformed sampling depend in part on groundwater/surface water exchange study goals. For example, studies focused on measuring representative groundwater and solute fluxes may be biased if high-discharge locations are preferentially sampled. However, identification of high-discharge locations may complement more randomized sampling plans and lead to improvements in interpolating streambed fluxes and upscaling point measurements to the stream reach scale.

Nebraska↗
USGS2010

Progression of stream bank erosion dudring a large flood, Rio Puerco, New Mexico

In August 2006, a large flood following saltcedar control efforts through a 12-km long segment of the Rio Puerco arroyo resulted in extensive lateral erosion of the streambanks. Almost all woody vegetation on the floodplain and channel banks had been killed by aerial spraying with herbicide in September 2003. During the flood, dead woody bank stems were either removed by the >4-m-deep flood flow or flattened against the bank, eliminating the source of drag that would have protected the banks from erosion. Owing to downstream variation in the shear stresses on the channel banks and floodplain, lateral erosion of the channel banks was highly variable within the sprayed reach, but channel width increased by an average of 84%. Locations and magnitudes of channel bank erosion were documented from high-resolution imagery and a post-flood (January 2007) high-precision Global Positioning System survey. Topographic data collected during the January 2007 field survey combined with geomorphic mapping from imagery provided a means to infer the progression and relative timing of bank erosion during the flood. Observations and calculations indicate channel widening resulted from a combination of direct fluvial erosion of the lower banks and mass failures of the upper banks. Applications of physically based models of flow and sediment transport demonstrate the relative influence of local floodplain slope, arroyo topography, and orientation of the channel centerline relative to the down-valley axis on bank erosion. Differences in suspended sand concentrations computed using model-calculated “skin friction” shear stress quantify the erosion rate at a site where channel width doubled during the flood.

Conference Paper↗
USGS2017

A geochemical examination of humidity cell tests

Humidity cell tests (HCTs) are long-term (20 to >300 weeks) leach tests that are considered by some to be the among the most reliable geochemical characterization methods for estimating the leachate quality of mined materials. A number of modifications have been added to the original HCT method, but the interpretation of test results varies widely. We suggest that the HCTs represent an underutilized source of geochemical data, with a year-long test generating approximately 2500 individual chemical data points. The HCT concentration peaks and valleys can be thought of as a “chromatogram” of reactions that may occur in the field, whereby peaks in concentrations are associated with different geochemical processes, including sulfate salt dissolution, sulfide oxidation, and dissolution of rock-forming minerals, some of which can neutralize acid. Some of these reactions occur simultaneously, some do not, and geochemical modeling can be used to help distinguish the dominant processes. Our detailed examination, including speciation and inverse modeling, of HCTs from three projects with different geology and mineralization shows that rapid sulfide oxidation dominates over a limited period of time that starts between 40 and 200 weeks of testing. The applicability of laboratory tests results to predicting field leachate concentrations, loads, or rates of reaction has not been adequately demonstrated, although early flush releases and rapid sulfide oxidation rates in HCTs should have some relevance to field conditions. Knowledge of possible maximum solute concentrations is needed to design effective treatment and mitigation approaches. Early flush and maximum sulfide oxidation results from HCTs should be retained and used in environmental models. Factors that complicate the use of HCTs include: sample representation, time for microbial oxidizers to grow, sample storage before testing, geochemical reactions that add or remove constituents, and the HCT results chosen for use in modeling the environmental performance at mine sites. Improved guidance is needed for more consistent interpretation and use of HCT results that rely on identifying: the geochemical processes; the mineralogy, including secondary mineralogy; the available surface area for reactions; and the influence of hydrologic processes on leachate concentrations in runoff, streams, and groundwater.

Applied Geochemistry↗
USGS2005

Water-Quality Assessment of the Yellowstone River Basin, Montana and Wyoming-Water Quality of Fixed Sites, 1999-2001

The National Water-Quality Assessment Program of the U.S. Geological Survey initiated an assessment in 1997 of the quality of water resources in the Yellowstone River Basin. Water-quality samples regularly were collected during 1999-2001 at 10 fixed sites on streams representing the major environmental settings of the basin. Integrator sites, which are heterogeneous in land use and geology, were established on the mainstem of the Yellowstone River (4 sites) and on three major tributaries?Clarks Fork Yellowstone River (1 site), the Bighorn River (1 site), and the Powder River (1 site). Indicator sites, which are more homogeneous in land use and geology than the integrator sites, were located on minor tributaries with important environmental settings?Soda Butte Creek in a mineral resource area (1 site), the Tongue River in a forested area (1 site), and the Little Powder River in a rangeland area (1 site). Water-quality sampling frequency generally was at least monthly and included field measurements and laboratory analyses of fecal-indicator bacteria, major ions, dissolved solids, nutrients, trace elements, pesticides, and suspended sediment. Median concentrations of fecal coliform and Escherichia coli were largest for basins that were predominantly rangeland and smallest for basins that were predominantly forested. Concentrations of fecal coliform and Escherichia coli significantly varied by season (p-value <0.001); the smallest median concentrations were during January?March and the largest median concentrations were during April?June. Fecal-coliform concentrations exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recommended limit for a single sample of 400 colonies per 100 milliliters in 2.6 percent of all samples. Escherichia coli concentrations exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recommended limit for a single sample of 298 colonies per 100 milliliters for moderate use, full-body contact recreation in 7.6 percent of all samples. Variations in water type in the basin are reflective of the diverse geologic terrain in the Yellowstone River Basin. The water type of Soda Butte Creek and the Tongue River was calcium bicarbonate. These two sites are in forested and mountainous areas where igneous rocks and Paleozoic-era and Mesozoic-era sedimentary rocks are the dominant geologic groups. The water type of the Little Powder River was sodium sulfate. The Little Powder River originates in the plains, and geology of the basin is nearly homogenous with Tertiary-period sedimentary rocks. Water type of the Yellowstone River changed from a mixed-cation bicarbonate type upstream to a mixed-cation sulfate type downstream. Dissolved-solids concentrations ranged from fairly dilute in Soda Butte Creek, which had a median concentration of 118 milligrams per liter, to concentrated in the Little Powder River, which had a median concentration of 2,840 milligrams per liter. Nutrient concentrations generally were small and reflect the relatively undeveloped conditions in the basin; however, some correlations were made with anthropogenic factors. Median dissolved-nitrate concentrations in all samples from the fixed sites ranged from 0.04 milligram per liter to 0.54 milligram per liter. Flow-weighted mean dissolved-nitrate concentrations were positively correlated with increasing agricultural land use and rangeland on alluvial deposits upstream from the sites and negatively correlated with increasing forested land. Ammonia concentrations generally were largest in samples collected from the Yellowstone River at Corwin Springs, Montana, which is downstream from Yellowstone National Park and receives discharge from geothermal waters that are high in ammonia. Median total-phosphorus concentrations ranged from 0.007 to 0.18 milligram per liter. Median total-phosphorus concentrations exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's recommended goal of 0.10 milligram per liter for preventing nuisance plant growth for samples collec

Scientific Investigations Report↗
USGS2012

Resolving hyporheic and groundwater components of streambed water flux

Hyporheic and groundwater fluxes typically occur together in permeable sediments beneath flowing stream water. However, streambed water fluxes quantified using the thermal method are usually interpreted as representing either groundwater or hyporheic fluxes. Our purpose was to improve understanding of co-occurring groundwater and hyporheic fluxes using streambed temperature measurements and analysis of one-dimensional heat transport in shallow streambeds. First, we examined how changes in hyporheic and groundwater fluxes affect their relative magnitudes by reevaluating previously published simulations. These indicated that flux magnitudes are largely independent until a threshold is crossed, past which hyporheic fluxes are diminished by much larger (1000-fold) groundwater fluxes. We tested accurate quantification of co-occurring fluxes using one-dimensional approaches that are appropriate for analyzing streambed temperature data collected at field sites. The thermal analytical method, which uses an analytical solution to the one-dimensional heat transport equation, was used to analyze results from a numerical heat transport model, in which hyporheic flow was represented as increased thermal dispersion at shallow depths. We found that co-occurring groundwater and hyporheic fluxes can be quantified in streambeds, although not always accurately. For example, using a temperature time series collected in a sandy streambed, we found that hyporheic and groundwater flow could both be detected when thermal dispersion due to hyporheic flow was significant compared to thermal conduction. We provide guidance for when thermal data can be used to quantify both hyporheic and groundwater fluxes, and we show that neglecting thermal dispersion may affect accuracy and interpretation of estimated streambed water fluxes.

Water Resources Research↗
USGS2000

Procedures for scour assessments at bridges in Pennsylvania

Scour is the process and result of flowing water eroding the bed and banks of a stream. Scour at nearly 14,300 bridges(1) spanning water, and the stability of river and stream channels in Pennsylvania, are being assessed by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in cooperation with the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT). Procedures for bridge-scour assessments have been established to address the needs of PennDOT in meeting a 1988 Federal Highway Administration mandate requiring states to establish a program to assess all public bridges over water for their vulnerability to scour. The procedures also have been established to help develop an understanding of the local and regional factors that affect scour and channel stability. This report describes procedures for the assessment of scour at all bridges that are 20 feet or greater in length that span water in Pennsylvania. There are two basic types of assessment: field-viewed bridge site assessments, for which USGS personnel visit the bridge site, and office-reviewed bridge site assessments, for which USGS personnel compile PennDOT data and do not visit the bridge site. Both types of assessments are primarily focused at assisting PennDOT in meeting the requirements of the Federal Highway Administration mandate; however, both assessments include procedures for the collection and processing of ancillary data for subsequent analysis. Date of bridge construction and the accessibility of the bridge substructure units for inspection determine which type of assessment a bridge receives. A Scour-Critical Bridge Indicator Code and a Scour Assessment Rating are computed from selected collected and compiled data. PennDOT personnel assign the final Scour-Critical Bridge Indicator Code and a Scour Assessment Rating on the basis of their review of all data. (1)Words presented in bold type are defined in the Glossary section of this report.

Open-File Report↗
USGS1996

Level II scour analysis for Bridge 13 (POMFTH00020013) on Town Highway 2, crossing Barnard Brook, Pomfret, Vermont

This report provides the results of a detailed Level II analysis of scour potential at structure POMFTH00020013 on town highway 2 crossing Barnard Brook, Pomfret, Vermont (figures 1–8). A Level II study is a basic engineering analysis of the site, including a quantitative analysis of stream stability and scour (U.S. Department of Transportation, 1993). Results of a Level I scour investigation also are included in Appendix E of this report. A Level I study provides a qualitative geomorphic characterization of the study site. Information on the bridge, gleaned from Vermont Agency of Transportation (VTAOT) files, was compiled prior to conducting Level I and Level II analyses and can be found in Appendix D. The site is in the New England Upland section of the New England physiographic province of east-central Vermont in the town of Pomfret. The 7.98-mi 2 drainage area is in a predominantly rural and forested basin. In the vicinity of the study site, the surface cover is primarily field grasses with some brush on the immediate banks. In the study area, Barnard Brook has an incised, sinuous channel with a slope of approximately 0.006 ft/ft, an average channel top width of 32 ft and an average channel depth of 4 ft. The predominant channel bed materials are gravel and cobbles with a median grain size (D 50 ) of 51.0 mm (0.167 ft). The geomorphic assessment at the time of the Level I and Level II site visit on September 15, 1994, indicated that the reach was stable. The town highway 2 crossing of Barnard Brook is a 23-ft-long, two-lane bridge consisting of one 20-foot concrete span (Vermont Agency of Transportation, written communication, August 22, 1994). The bridge is supported by vertical, concrete abutments with wingwalls. The channel is skewed approximately 30 degrees to the opening while the opening-skew-toroadway is 0 degrees. Scour, 2.5 ft deeper than the mean thalweg depth, was observed along the left abutment during the Level I assessment. The only scour protection measure at the site was type-2 stone fill (less than 36 inches diameter) along the base and upstream of the upstream left wingwall. Additional details describing conditions at the site are included in the Level II Summary and Appendices D and E. Scour depths and rock rip-rap sizes were computed using the general guidelines described in Hydraulic Engineering Circular 18 (Richardson and others, 1995). Total scour at a highway crossing is comprised of three components: 1) long-term streambed degradation; 2) contraction scour (due to accelerated flow caused by a reduction in flow area at a bridge) and; 3) local scour (caused by accelerated flow around piers and abutments). Total scour is the sum of the three components. Equations are available to compute depths for contraction and local scour and a summary of the results of these computations follows. Contraction scour for all modelled flows ranged from 0.0 to 1.5 ft. The worst-case contraction scour occurred at the 100-year discharge. Abutment scour ranged from 7.2 to 12.6 ft. The worst-case abutment scour occurred at the 500-year discharge. Additional information on scour depths and depths to armoring are included in the section titled “Scour Results”. Scoured-streambed elevations, based on the calculated scour depths, are presented in tables 1 and 2. A cross-section of the scour computed at the bridge is presented in figure 8. Scour depths were calculated assuming an infinite depth of erosive material and a homogeneous particle-size distribution. It is generally accepted that the Froehlich equation (abutment scour) gives “excessively conservative estimates of scour depths” (Richardson and others, 1995, p. 47). Usually, computed scour depths are evaluated in combination with other information including (but not limited to) historical performance during flood events, the geomorphic stability assessment, existing scour protection measures, and the results of the hydraulic analyses. Therefore, scour depths adopted by VTAOT may differ from the computed values documented herein.

Vermont↗
USGS1999

Relation of streams, lakes, and wetlands to groundwater flow systems

Surface-water bodies are integral parts of groundwater flow systems. Groundwater interacts with surface water in nearly all landscapes, ranging from small streams, lakes, and wetlands in headwater areas to major river valleys and seacoasts. Although it generally is assumed that topographically high areas are groundwater recharge areas and topographically low areas are groundwater discharge areas, this is true primarily for regional flow systems. The superposition of local flow systems associated with surface-water bodies on this regional framework results in complex interactions between groundwater and surface water in all landscapes, regardless of regional topographic position. Hydrologic processes associated with the surface-water bodies themselves, such as seasonally high surface-water levels and evaporation and transpiration of groundwater from around the perimeter of surface-water bodies, are a major cause of the complex and seasonally dynamic groundwater flow fields associated with surface water. These processes have been documented at research sites in glacial, dune, coastal, mantled karst, and riverine terrains.

Hydrogeology Journal↗
USGS1982

Hydrology of potential mining areas in the Warrior coal field, Alabama

Hydrologic data for four small basins and for numerous other sites in the Warrior coal field are used to define the potential impact of surface mining on water resources. Bear and Blue Creek basins are underlain predominantly by relatively impermeable consolidated rocks in the Pottsville Formation. Turkey and Yellow Creek basins are underlain predominantly by permeable unconsolidated rocks in the Coker Formation. Well yields from the Pottsville Formation generally range from 0 to 5 gallons per minute and those from the Coker Formation generally range from 5 to 100 gallons per minute. With the exception of locally objectional concentrations of dissolved iron and manganese, ground water in the basins is suitable for most uses. Streamflow distribution reflects seasonal precipitation. Storm runoff is characterized by concentrated peakflows of short duration that rapidly recede to low flow. Streams draining basins underlain mainly by the Pottsville Formation frequently go dry, whereas those draining basins underlain chiefly by the Coker Formation have well-sustained low flows. Surface water is generally acidic and low in dissolved solids. Water in streams draining basins underlain chiefly by the Pottsville Formation is slightly more mineralized and less acidic than water in streams draining areas underlain chiefly by the Coker Formation. Climatic, physiographic, hydrologic, and land-use data are analyzed by regressions to derive relations for estimating water quality in streams draining mined and unmined areas. The impacts of mining on the hydrologic systems are identified as increased erosion and sedimentation, baseflow augmentation, decline in groundwater levels, and degradation of water quality. A digital model was calibrated to simulate streamflow for Bear, Blue, and Yellow Creeks under unmined conditions. The model, when calibrated and verified under mined and unmined conditions, can be coupled with developed water-quality relationships. This will permit a general examination of .surface-water characteristics (quantity and quality), and estimation of hydrologic impacts that will result from surface mining.

Open-File Report↗
USGS2004

Biomonitoring of Environmental Status and Trends (BEST) Program: Environmental contaminants and their effects on fish in the Rio Grande Basin

We collected, examined, and analyzed 368 fish of seven species from 10 sites in the Rio Grande Basin (RGB) during late 1997 and early 1998. Four sites were National Contaminant Biomonitoring Program (NCBP) stations where organochlorine ad elemental contaminants in fish had been monitored from 1969 and through 1986. The other six were USGS-National Stream Quantity Accounting Network (NASQAN) stations where water quality is monitored. The objectives were to document temporal and geographic trends in the concentrations of accumulative organic and inorganic contaminants in RGB fish and the effects of contaminants on the fish; to continue testing the feasibility of incorporating biomarkers (that is, biochemical, histopathological, and other biological indicators of contaminant exposure or effects) into a monitoring program for large U.S. rivers; and to evaluate the compatibility of monitoring methods based on the analysis of fish with those used to monitor water by NASQAN. Common carp ( Cyprinus carpio ; carp) and black basses ( Micropterus sp.; bass) were the targeted species; together, they represented 77% of the fish collected. Each fish was examined in the field for externally and internally visible gross lesions, selected organs were weighed to compute various ponderal and organosomatic indices, and samples of tissues and fluids were obtained and preserved for analysis of fish health and reproductive biomarkers. Composite samples of whole fish from each station were grouped by species and gender and analyzed by instrumental methods for persistent organic and inorganic contaminants and for dioxin-like activity (TCDD-EQ) using the H4IIE rat hepatoma cell bioassay.

Rio Grande basin↗
USGS2003

Quantitative PCR analysis of CYP1A induction in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

Environmental pollutants are hypothesized to be one of the causes of recent declines in wild populations of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) across Eastern Canada and the United States. Some of these pollutants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins, are known to induce expression of the CYP1A subfamily of genes. We applied a highly sensitive technique, quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), for measuring the levels of CYP1A induction in Atlantic salmon. This assay was used to detect patterns of CYP1A mRNA levels, a direct measure of CYP1A expression, in Atlantic salmon exposed to pollutants under both laboratory and field conditions. Two groups of salmon were acclimated to 11 and 17??C, respectively. Each subject then received an intraperitoneal injection (50 mg kg-1) of either ??-naphthoflavone (BNF) in corn oil (10 mg BNF ml-1 corn oil) or corn oil alone. After 48 h, salmon gill, kidney, liver, and brain were collected for RNA isolation and analysis. All tissues showed induction of CYP1A by BNF. The highest base level of CYP1A expression (2.56??1010 molecules/??g RNA) was found in gill tissue. Kidney had the highest mean induction at five orders of magnitude while gill tissue showed the lowest mean induction at two orders of magnitude. The quantitative RT-PCR was also applied to salmon sampled from two streams in Massachusetts, USA. Salmon liver and gill tissue sampled from Millers River (South Royalston, Worcester County), known to contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), showed on average a two orders of magnitude induction over those collected from a stream with no known contamination (Fourmile Brook, Northfield, Franklin County). Overall, the data show CYP1A exists and is inducible in Atlantic salmon gill, brain, kidney, and liver tissue. In addition, the results obtained demonstrate that quantitative PCR analysis of CYP1A expression is useful in studying ecotoxicity in populations of Atlantic salmon in the wild. ?? 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Aquatic Toxicology↗
USGS1996

Level II scour analysis for Bridge 99 (LUDLVT01000099) on State Highway 99, crossing Branch Brook, Ludlow, Vermont

This report provides the results of a detailed Level II analysis of scour potential at structure LUDLVT01000099 on State Highway 100 crossing Branch Brook, Ludlow, Vermont (figures 1–8). A Level II study is a basic engineering analysis of the site, including a quantitative analysis of stream stability and scour (U.S. Department of Transportation, 1993). Results of a Level I scour investigation also are included in Appendix E of this report. A Level I investigation provides a qualitative geomorphic characterization of the study site. Information on the bridge, gleaned from Vermont Agency of Transportation (VTAOT) files, was compiled prior to conducting Level I and Level II analyses and is found in Appendix D. The site is in the Green Mountain section of the New England physiographic province in central Vermont. The 15.7-mi 2 drainage area is in a predominantly rural and forested basin. In the vicinity of the study site, the channel banks are densely covered by trees and brush. The overbanks are primarily covered by field grasses. In the study area, Branch Brook has an incised, straight channel with a slope of approximately 0.003 ft/ft, an average channel top width of 73 ft and an average channel depth of 5 ft. The predominant channel bed materials are cobble and gravel with a median grain size (D 50 ) of 60.5 mm (0.198 ft). The geomorphic assessment at the time of the Level I and Level II site visit on October 13, 1995, indicated that the reach was stable. The State Highway 100 crossing of Branch Brook is a 84-ft-long, two-lane bridge consisting of one 82-foot steel-beam span (Vermont Agency of Transportation, written communication, March 13, 1995). The bridge is supported by vertical, concrete abutments. The abutments are set back from the channel edge and have a spill-through slope consisting of type-4 stone fill (median size less than 60 inches in diameter). The channel skew and the opening-skew-to-roadway is zero degrees. Additional details describing conditions at the site are included in the Level II Summary and Appendices D and E. Scour depths and rock rip-rap sizes were computed using the general guidelines described in Hydraulic Engineering Circular 18 (Richardson and others, 1995). Total scour at a highway crossing is comprised of three components: 1) long-term streambed degradation; 2) contraction scour (due to accelerated flow caused by a reduction in flow area at a bridge) and; 3) local scour (caused by accelerated flow around piers and abutments). Total scour is the sum of the three components. Equations are available to compute depths for contraction and local scour and a summary of the results of these computations follows. Contraction scour for all modelled flows ranged from 0.0 to 1.5 ft. The worst-case contraction scour occurred at the 500-year discharge. Abutment scour ranged from 1.0 to 7.4 ft. The worst-case abutment scour occurred at the 500-year discharge. Additional information on scour depths and depths to armoring are included in the section titled “Scour Results”. Scoured-streambed elevations, based on the calculated scour depths, are presented in tables 1 and 2. A cross-section of the scour computed at the bridge is presented in figure 8. Scour depths were calculated assuming an infinite depth of erosive material and a homogeneous particle-size distribution. It is generally accepted that the Froehlich equation (abutment scour) gives “excessively conservative estimates of scour depths” (Richardson and others, 1995, p. 47). Usually, computed scour depths are evaluated in combination with other information including (but not limited to) historical performance during flood events, the geomorphic stability assessment, existing scour protection measures, and the results of the hydraulic analyses. Therefore, scour depths adopted by VTAOT may differ from the computed values documented herein.

Vermont↗
USGS2001

Characterization of surface-water quality based on real-time monitoring and regression analysis, Quivira National Wildlife Refuge, south-central Kansas, December 1998 through June 2001

Because of the considerable wildlife benefits offered by the Quivira National Wildlife Refuge in south-central Kansas, there is a desire to ensure suitable water quality. To assess the quality of water flowing from Rattlesnake Creek into the refuge, the U.S. Geological Survey collected periodic water samples from December 1998 through June 2001 and analyzed the samples for physical properties, dissolved solids, total suspended solids, suspended sediment, major ions, nutrients, metals, pesticides, and indicator bacteria. Concentrations of 10 of the 125 chemicals analyzed did not meet water-quality criteria to protect aquatic life and drinking water in a least one sample. These were pH, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, dissolved solids, sodium, chloride, phosphorus, total coliform bacteria, E. coli bacteria, and fecal coliform bacteria. No metal or pesticide concentrations exceeded water-quality criteria. Twenty-two of the 43 metals analyzed were not detected, and 36 of the 46 pesticides analyzed were not detected. Because dissolved solids, sodium, chloride, fecal coliform bacteria, and other chemicals that are a concern for the health and habitat of fish and wildlife at the refuge cannot be measured continuously, regression equations were developed from a comparison of the analytical results of periodic samples and in-stream monitor measurements of specific conductance, pH, water temperature, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen. A continuous record of estimated chemical concentrations was developed from continuously recorded in-stream measurements. Annual variation in water quality was evaluated by comparing 1999 and 2000 sample data- the 2 years for which complete data sets were available. Median concentrations of alkalinity, fluoride, nitrate, and fecal coliform bacteria were smaller or did not change from 1999 to 2000. Dissolved solids, total suspended solids, sodium, chloride, sulfate, total organic nitrogen, and total phosphorus had increases in median concentrations from 1999 to 2000. Increases in the median concentrations of the major ions were expected due to decreased rainfall in 2000 and very low streamflow late in the year. Increases for solids and nutrients may have been due to the unusually high streamflow in the early spring of 2000. This was the time of year when fields were tilled, exposing solids and nutrients that were transported with runoff to Rattlesnake Creek. Load estimates indicate the chemical mass transported into the refuge and can be used in the development of total maximum daily loads (as specified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) for water-quality contaminants in Rattlesnake Creek. Load estimates also were used to evaluate seasonal variation in water quality. Seasonal variation was most pronounced in the estimates of nutrient loads, and most of the nutrient load transported to the refuge occurred during just a few periods of surface runoff in the spring and summer. This information may be used by resource managers to determine when water-diversion strategies would be most beneficial. Load estimates also were used to calculate yields, which are useful for site comparisons. The continuous and real-time nature of the record of estimated concentrations, loads, and yields may be important for resource managers, recreationalists, or others for evaluating water-diversion strategies, making water-use decisions, or assessing the environmental effects of chemicals in time to prevent adverse effects on fish or other aquatic life at the refuge.

Kansas↗
USGS2014

Multi-temporal mapping of a large, slow-moving earth flow for kinematic interpretation

Periodic movement of large, thick landslides on discrete basal surfaces produces modifications of the topographic surface, creates faults and folds, and influences the locations of springs, ponds, and streams (Baum, et al., 1993; Coe et al., 2009). The geometry of the basal-slip surface, which can be controlled by geological structures (e.g., fold axes, faults, etc.; Revellino et al., 2010; Grelle et al., 2011), and spatial variation in the rate of displacement, are responsible for differential deformation and kinematic segmentation of the landslide body. Thus, large landslides are often composed of several distinct kinematic elements. Each element represents a discrete kinematic domain within the main landslide that is broadly characterized by stretching (extension) of the upper part of the landslide and shortening (compression) near the landslide toe (Baum and Fleming, 1991; Guerriero et al., in review). On the basis of this knowledge, we used photo interpretive and GPS field mapping methods to map structures on the surface of the Montaguto earth flow in the Apennine Mountains of southern Italy at a scale of 1:6,000. (Guerriero et al., 2013a; Fig.1). The earth flow has been periodically active since at least 1954. The most extensive and destructive period of activity began on April 26, 2006, when an estimated 6 million m3 of material mobilized, covering and closing Italian National Road SS90, and damaging residential structures (Guerriero et al., 2013b). Our maps show the distribution and evolution of normal faults, thrust faults, strike-slip faults, flank ridges, and hydrological features at nine different dates (October, 1954; June, 1976; June, 1991; June, 2003; June, 2005; May, 2006; October, 2007; July, 2009; and March , 2010) between 1954 and 2010. Within the earth flow we recognized several kinematic elements and associated structures (Fig.2a). Within each kinematic element (e.g. the earth flow neck; Fig.2b), the flow velocity was highest in the middle, and lowest in the upper and lower parts. As the velocity of movement initiated and increased, stretching of the earth flow body induced the formation of normal faults. Conversely, decreasing velocity and shortening of the earth flow induced the formation of thrust faults. A zone with relatively few structures, bounded by strike-slip faults, was located between stretching and shortening areas. These kinematic elements indicate that the overall earth flow was actually composed of numerous linked internal earth flows, with each internal flow having a distinct pattern of structures representative of stretching and shortening (Guerriero et al., in review). These observations indicated that the spatial variation in movement velocity associated with each internal earth flow, mimicked the pattern of movement for the overall earth flow. That is, the earth flow displayed a self-similar pattern at different scales. Furthermore, the presence of other structures such as back-tilted surfaces, flank-ridges, and hydrological elements provide specific information about the shape of the basal topographic surface. Our multi-temporal maps provided a basis for interpretation of the long-term kinematic evolution of the earth flow and the influence of the basal-slip surface on the earth flow movement. Our maps showed that main faults remained stationary through time, despite extensive mobilization and movement of material. This observation indicated that the slip-surface has remained relatively stationary since at least 1954.

Conference Paper↗