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At least 1,369 records · Page 76Linked to original sources
USGS1998

Time functions of deep earthquakes from broadband and short-period stacks

To constrain dynamic source properties of deep earthquakes, we have systematically constructed broadband time functions of deep earthquakes by stacking and scaling teleseismic P waves from U.S. National Seismic Network, TERRAscope, and Berkeley Digital Seismic Network broadband stations. We examined 42 earthquakes with depths from 100 to 660 km that occurred between July 1, 1992 and July 31, 1995. To directly compare time functions, or to group them by size, depth, or region, it is essential to scale them to remove the effect of moment, which varies by more than 3 orders of magnitude for these events. For each event we also computed short-period stacks of P waves recorded by west coast regional arrays. The comparison of broadband with short-period stacks yields a considerable advantage, enabling more reliable measurement of event duration. A more accurate estimate of the duration better constrains the scaling procedure to remove the effect of moment, producing scaled time functions with both correct timing and amplitude. We find only subtle differences in the broadband time-function shape with moment, indicating successful scaling and minimal effects of attenuation at the periods considered here. The average shape of the envelopes of the short-period stacks is very similar to the average broadband time function. The main variations seen with depth are (1) a mild decrease in duration with increasing depth, (2) greater asymmetry in the time functions of intermediate events compared to deep ones, and (3) unexpected complexity and late moment release for events between 350 and 550 km, with seven of the eight events in that depth interval displaying markedly more complicated time functions with more moment release late in the rupture than most events above or below. The first two results are broadly consistent with our previous studies, while the third is reported here for the first time. The greater complexity between 350 and 550 km suggests greater heterogeneity in the failure process in that depth range.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗
USGS1998

Evolution of the Gorda Escarpment, San Andreas fault and Mendocino triple junction from multichannel seismic data collected across the northern Vizcaino block, offshore northern California

The Gorda Escarpment is a north facing scarp immediately south of the Mendocino transform fault (the Gorda/Juan de Fuca-Pacific plate boundary) between 126°W and the Mendocino triple junction. It elevates the seafloor at the northern edge of the Vizcaino block, part of the Pacific plate, ∼1.5 km above the seafloor of the Gorda/Juan de Fuca plate to the north. Stratigraphy interpreted from multichannel seismic data across and close to the Gorda Escarpment suggests that the escarpment is a relatively recent pop-up feature caused by north-south compression across the plate boundary. Close to 126°W, the Vizcaino block acoustic basement shallows and is overlain by sediments that thin north toward the Gorda Escarpment. These sediments are tilted south and truncated at the seafloor. By contrast, in a localized region at the eastern end of the Gorda Escarpment, close to the Mendocino triple junction, the top of acoustic basement dips north and is overlain by a 2-km-thick wedge of pre-11 Ma sedimentary rocks that thickens north, toward the Gorda Escarpment. This wedge of sediments is restricted to the northeast corner of the Vizcaino block. Unless the wedge of sediments was a preexisting feature on the Vizcaino block before it was transferred from the North American to the Pacific plate, the strong spatial correlation between the sedimentary wedge and the triple junction suggests the entire Vizcaino block, with the San Andreas at its eastern boundary, has been part of the Pacific plate since significantly before 11 Ma.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗
USGS1998

Poroelastic rebound along the Landers 1992 earthquake surface rupture

Maps of surface displacement following the 1992 Landers, California, earthquake, generated by interferometric processing of ERS-1 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images, reveal effects of various postseismic deformation processes along the 1992 surface rupture. The large-scale pattern of the postseismic displacement field includes large lobes, mostly visible on the west side of the fault, comparable in shape with the lobes observed in the coseismic displacement field. This pattern and the steep displacement gradient observed near the Emerson-Camp Rock fault cannot be simply explained by afterslip on deep sections of the 1992 rupture. Models show that horizontal slip occurring on a buried dislocation in a Poisson's material produces a characteristic quadripole pattern in the surface displacement field with several centimeters of vertical motion at distances of 10–20 km from the fault, yet this pattern is not observed in the postseismic interferograms. As previously proposed to explain local strain in the fault step overs [ Peltzer et al ., 1996b], we argue that poroelastic rebound caused by pore fluid flow may also occur over greater distances from the fault, compensating the vertical ground shift produced by fault afterslip. Such a rebound is explained by the gradual change of the crustal rocks' Poisson's ratio value from undrained (coseismic) to drained (postseismic) conditions as pore pressure gradients produced by the earthquake dissipate. Using the Poisson's ratio values of 0.27 and 0.31 for the drained and undrained crustal rocks, respectively, elastic dislocation models show that the combined contributions of afterslip on deep sections of the fault and poroelastic rebound can account for the range change observed in the SAR data and the horizontal displacement measured at Global Positioning System (GPS) sites along a 60-km-long transect across the Emerson fault [ Savage and Svarc , 1997]. Using a detailed surface slip distribution on the Homestead Valley, Kickapoo, and Johnson Valley faults, we modeled the poroelastic rebound in the Homestead Valley pull apart. A Poisson's ratio value of 0.35 for the undrained gouge rocks in the fault zone is required to account for the observed surface uplift in the 3.5 years following the earthquake. This large value implies a seismic velocity ratio V p /V s of 2.1, consistent with the observed low V s values of fault zone guided waves at shallow depth [ Li et al ., 1997]. The SAR data also reveal postseismic creep along shallow patches of the Eureka Peak and Burnt Mountain faults with a characteristic decay time of 0.8 years. Coseismic, dilatant hardening (locking process) followed by post-seismic, pore pressure controlled fault creep provide a plausible mechanism to account for the decay time of the observed slip rate along this section of the fault.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗
USGS1998

Synthetic aperture radar interferometry coherence analysis over Katmai volcano group, Alaska

The feasibility of measuring volcanic deformation or monitoring deformation of active volcanoes using space-borne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) interferometry depends on the ability to maintain phase coherence over appropriate time intervals. Using ERS 1 C band (λ=5.66 cm) SAR imagery, we studied the seasonal and temporal changes of the interferometric SAR coherence for fresh lava, weathered lava, tephra with weak water reworking, tephra with strong water reworking, and fluvial deposits representing the range of typical volcanic surface materials in the Katmai volcano group, Alaska. For interferograms based on two passes with 35 days separation taken during the same summer season, we found that coherence increases after early June, reaches a peak between the middle of July and the middle of September, and finally decreases until the middle of November when coherence is completely lost for all five sites. Fresh lava has the highest coherence, followed by either weathered lava or fluvial deposits. These surfaces maintain relatively high levels of coherence for periods up to the length of the summer season. Coherence degrades more rapidly with time for surfaces covered with tephra. For images taken in different summers, only the lavas maintained coherence well enough to provide useful interferometric images, but we found only a small reduction in coherence after the first year for surfaces with lava. Measurement of volcanic deformation is possible using summer images spaced a few years apart, as long as the surface is dominated by lavas. Our studies suggest that in order to make volcanic monitoring feasible along the Aleutian arc or other regions with similar climatic conditions, observation intervals of the satellite with C band SAR should be at least every month from July through September, every week during the late spring/early summer or late fall, and every 2–3 days during the winter.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗
USGS1999

Mapping the rupture process of moderate earthquakes by inverting accelerograms

We present a waveform inversion method that uses recordings of small events as Green's functions to map the rupture growth of moderate earthquakes. The method fits P and S waveforms from many stations simultaneously in an iterative procedure to estimate the subevent rupture time and amplitude relative to the Green's function event. We invert the accelerograms written by two moderate Parkfield earthquakes using smaller events as Green's functions. The first earthquake ( M = 4.6) occurred on November 14, 1993, at a depth of 11 km under Middle Mountain, in the assumed preparation zone for the next Parkfield main shock. The second earthquake ( M = 4.7) occurred on December 20, 1994, some 6 km to the southeast, at a depth of 9 km on a section of the San Andreas fault with no previous microseismicity and little inferred coseismic slip in the 1966 Parkfield earthquake. The inversion results are strikingly different for the two events. The average stress release in the 1993 event was 50 bars, distributed over a geometrically complex area of 0.9 km 2 . The average stress release in the 1994 event was only 6 bars, distributed over a roughly elliptical area of 20 km 2 . The ruptures of both events appear to grow spasmodically into relatively complex shapes: the inversion only constrains the ruptures to grow more slowly than the S wave velocity but does not use smoothness constraints.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗
USGS1999

Coseismic slip resolution along a plate boundary megathrust: the Nankai Trough, southwest Japan

Geodetic survey measurements are used to estimate the coseismic slip distribution in the 1944 Tonankai (M w =8.1) and 1946 Nankaido (M w =8.3) earthquakes and to assess quantitatively the degree to which this slip is resolved on the plate boundary megathrust. Data used include 798 angle changes from triangulation surveys, 328 leveling section differences, and 5 coseismic tidal gage offsets. Many of the nominally coseismic triangulation data span ∼50 years, nearly half the earthquake cycle, and correction for interseismic deformation using post-1950 observations is applied. Microseismicity is used to define the configuration of the plate boundary interface and approximate it with a continuous, multisegment fault model. Because the onshore geodetic data have very limited resolving power for offshore fault segments, offshore coseismic slip was constrained by Satctke's [1993] estimation based on tsunami data. The majority of the coseismic slip occurs between 15 and 25 km depth. Although resolution declines toward the trench axis, it is sufficiently good to define two distinct high-slip regions, one off southeastern Shikoku Island (11 m maximum) and the other offshore of Kii Peninsula (3 m maximum). The slip magnitude off southeastern Shikoku, coupled with the plate convergence rate, would imply an recurrence interval of about 270 years, much-longer than the average repeat time of ∼120 years for historical great earthquakes on the Nankai Trough. However, the maximum coseismic slip is sensitive to the assumed fault geometry, and slippage on trough-parallel splay faults could significantly decrease the maximum slip to about 6 m.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗
USGS1998

Winter and early spring CO2 efflux from tundra communities of northern Alaska

Carbon dioxide concentrations through snow were measured in different arctic tundra communities on the North Slope of Alaska during winter and early spring of 1996. Subnivean CO 2 concentrations were always higher than atmospheric CO 2 . A steady state diffusion model was used to generate conservative estimates of CO 2 flux to the atmosphere. The magnitude of CO 2 efflux differed with tundra community type, and rates of carbon release increased from March to May. Winter CO 2 efflux was highest in riparian and snow bed communities and lowest in dry heath, upland tussock, and wet sedge communities. Snow generally accrues earlier in winter and is deeper in riparian and snow bed communities compared with other tundra communities, which are typically windswept and do not accumulate much snow during the winter. These results support the hypothesis that early and deep snow accumulation may insulate microbial populations from very cold temperatures, allowing sites with earlier snow cover to sustain higher levels of activity throughout winter compared to communities that have later developing snow cover. Extrapolating our estimates of CO 2 efflux to the entire snow-covered season indicates that total carbon flux during winter in the Arctic is 13–109 kg CO 2 -C ha −1 , depending on the vegetation community type. Wintertime CO 2 flux is a potentially important, yet largely overlooked, part of the annual carbon cycle of tundra, and carbon release during winter should be accounted for in estimates of annual carbon balance in arctic ecosystems.

Journal of Geophysical Research D: Atmospheres↗
USGS1998

Analysis of simulated advanced spaceborne thermal emission and reflection (ASTER) radiometer data of the Iron Hill, Colorado, study area for mapping lithologies

The advanced spaceborne thermal emission and reflection (ASTER) radiometer was designed to record reflected energy in nine channels with 15 or 30 m resolution, including stereoscopic images, and emitted energy in five channels with 90 m resolution from the NASA Earth Observing System AMI platform. A simulated ASTER data set was produced for the Iron Hill, Colorado, study area by resampling calibrated, registered airborne visible/infrared imaging spectrometer (AVIRIS) data, and thermal infrared multispectral scanner (TIMS) data to the appropriate spatial and spectral parameters. A digital elevation model was obtained to simulate ASTER-derived topographic data. The main lithologic units in the area are granitic rocks and felsite into which a carbonatite stock and associated alkalic igneous rocks were intruded; these rocks are locally covered by Jurassic sandstone, Tertiary rhyolitic tuff, and colluvial deposits. Several methods were evaluated for mapping the main lithologic units, including the unsupervised classification and spectral curve-matching techniques. In the five thermalinfrared (TIR) channels, comparison of the results of linear spectral unmixing and unsupervised classification with published geologic maps showed that the main lithologic units were mapped, but large areas with moderate to dense tree cover were not mapped in the TIR data. Compared to TIMS data, simulated ASTER data permitted slightly less discrimination in the mafic alkalic rock series, and carbonatite was not mapped in the TIMS nor in the simulated ASTER TIR data. In the nine visible and near-infrared channels, unsupervised classification did not yield useful results, but both the spectral linear unmixing and the matched filter techniques produced useful results, including mapping calcitic and dolomitic carbonatite exposures, travertine in hot spring deposits, kaolinite in argillized sandstone and tuff, and muscovite in sericitized granite and felsite, as well as commonly occurring illite/muscovite. However, the distinction made in AVIRIS data between calcite and dolomite was not consistently feasible in the simulated ASTER data. Comparison of the lithologie information produced by spectral analysis of the simulated ASTER data to a photogeologic interpretation of a simulated ASTER color image illustrates the high potential of spectral analysis of ASTER data to geologic interpretation.

Journal of Geophysical Research D: Atmospheres↗
USGS1998

Non-water-ice constituents in the surface material of the icy Galilean satellites from the Galileo near-infrared mapping spectrometer investigation

We present evidence for several non‐ice constituents in the surface material of the icy Galilean satellites, using the reflectance spectra returned by the Galileo near infrared mapping spectrometer (NIMS) experiment. Five new absorption features are described at 3.4, 3.88, 4.05, 4.25, and 4.57 μm for Callisto and Ganymede, and some seem to exist for Europa as well. The four absorption bands strong enough to be mapped on Callisto and Ganymede are each spatially distributed in different ways, indicating different materials are responsible for each absorption. The spatial distributions are correlated at the local level in complex ways with surface features and in some cases show global patterns. Suggested candidate spectrally active groups, perhaps within larger molecules, producing the five absorptions include C‐H, S‐H, SO 2 , CO 2 , and C≡N. Organic material like tholins are candidates for the 4.57‐ and 3.4‐μm features. We suggest, based on spectroscopic evidence, that CO 2 is present as a form which does not allow rotational modes and that SO 2 is present neither as a frost nor a free gas. The CO 2 , SO 2 , and perhaps cyanogen (4.57 μm) may be present as very small collections of molecules within the crystal structure, perhaps following models for radiation damage and/or for comet and interstellar grain formation at low temperatures. Some of the dark material on these surfaces may be created by radiation damage of the CO 2 and other carbon‐bearing species and the formation of graphite. These spectra suggest a complex chemistry within the surface materials and an important role for non‐ice materials in the evolution of the satellite surfaces.

Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets↗
USGS1999

Photogrammetric analysis of horizon panoramas: The Pathfinder landing site in Viking orbiter images

Tiepoint measurements, block adjustment techniques, and sunrise/sunset pictures were used to obtain precise pointing data with respect to north for a set of 33 IMP horizon images. Azimuth angles for five prominent topographic features seen at the horizon were measured and correlated with locations of these features in Viking orbiter images. Based on this analysis, the Pathfinder line/sample coordinates in two raw Viking images were determined with approximate errors of 1 pixel, or 40 m. Identification of the Pathfinder location in orbit imagery yields geological context for surface studies of the landing site. Furthermore, the precise determination of coordinates in images together with the known planet-fixed coordinates of the lander make the Pathfinder landing site the most important anchor point in current control point networks of Mars.

Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets↗
USGS1998

Erosional valleys in the Thaumasia region of Mars: Hydrothermal and seismic origins

Analysis of erosional valleys, geologic materials and features, and topography through time in the Thaumasia region of Mars using co-registered digital spatial data sets reveals significant associations that relate to valley origin. Valleys tend to originate (1) on Noachian to Early Hesperian (stages 1 and 2) large volcanoes, (2) within 50–100 km of stages 1 and 2 rift systems, and (3) within 100 km of Noachian (stage 1) impact craters >50 km in diameter. These geologic preferences explain observations of higher valley-source densities (VSDs) in areas of higher elevations and regional slopes (>1°) because the volcanoes, rifts, and craters form high, steep topography or occur in terrain of high relief. Other stage 1 and stage 2 high, steep terrains, however, do not show high VSDs. The tendency for valleys to concentrate near geologic features and the overall low drainage densities in Thaumasia compared to terrestrial surfaces rule out widespread precipitation as a major factor in valley formation (as is proposed in wann, wet climate scenarios) except perhaps during the Early Noachian, for which much of the geologic record has been obliterated. Instead, volcanoes and rifts may indicate the presence of shallow crustal intrusions that could lead to local hydrothermal circulation, melting of ground ice and snow, and groundwater sapping. However, impact-crater melt would provide a heat source at the surface that might drive away water, fonning valleys in the process. Post-stage 1 craters mostly have low nearby VSDs, which, for valleys incised in older rocks, suggests burial by ejecta and, for younger valleys, may indicate desiccation of near-surface water and deepening of the cryosphere. Later Hesperian and Amazonian (stages 3 and 4) valleys originate within 100–200 km of three young, large impact craters and near rifts systems at Warrego Valles and the southern part of Coprates rise. These valleys likely developed when the cryosphere was a couple kilometers or more thick, inhibiting valley development by hydrothermal circulation. However, eruption of groundwater may have occurred from impact-induced fracturing and lateral and perhaps minor upward transport of water due to seismic pumping. The two smaller craters formed along the plateau margin where the highest potential hydraulic head would occur in aquifers beneath the plateau. In the case of the larger crater (Lowell, 200 km in diameter), potential aquifers would likely be at depths of kilometers below the cryosphere. Seismic energy generated by the Lowell impactor would have been much greater, pumping both groundwater and perhaps fluidized slurry to the surface from beneath the cryosphere to form the young valleys and flow deposit. Along the margin of Thaumasia, tectonic pressurization of groundwater also may have contributed to valley formation. Dissection of rim materials of the Argyre impact may relate to tectonic activity and the unconsolidated state of basin ejecta.

Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets↗
USGS1998

Rocky 7 prototype Mars rover field geology experiments: 1. Lavic Lake and Sunshine volcanic field, California

Experiments with the Rocky 7 rover were performed in the Mojave Desert to better understand how to conduct rover-based, long-distance (kilometers) geological traverses on Mars. The rover was equipped with stereo imaging systems for remote sensing science and hazard avoidance and 57 Fe Mössbauer and nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometers for in situ determination of mineralogy of unprepared rock and soil surfaces. Laboratory data were also obtained using the spectrometers and an X ray diffraction (XRD)/XRF instrument for unprepared samples collected from the rover sites. Simulated orbital and descent image data assembled for the test sites were found to be critical for assessing the geologic setting, formulating hypotheses to be tested with rover observations, planning traverses, locating the rover, and providing a regional context for interpretation of rover-based observations. Analyses of remote sensing and in situ observations acquired by the rover confirmed inferences made from orbital and simulated descent images that the Sunshine Volcanic Field is composed of basalt flows. Rover data confirmed the idea that Lavic Lake is a recharge playa and that an alluvial fan composed of sediments with felsic compositions has prograded onto the playa. Rover-based discoveries include the inference that the basalt flows are mantled with aeolian sediment and covered with a dense pavement of varnished basalt cobbles. Results demonstrate that the combination of rover remote sensing and in situ analytical observations will significantly increase our understanding of Mars and provide key connecting links between orbital and descent data and analyses of returned samples.

Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets↗
USGS1998

Classification of surface types using SIR-C/X-SAR, Mount Everest Area, Tibet

Imaging radar is a promising tool for mapping snow and ice cover in alpine regions. It combines a high-resolution, day or night, all-weather imaging capability with sensitivity to hydrologic and climatic snow and ice parameters. We use the spaceborne imaging radar-C/X-band synthetic aperture radar (SIR-C/X-SAR) to map snow and glacial ice on the rugged north slope of Mount Everest. From interferometrically derived digital elevation data, we compute the terrain calibration factor and cosine of the local illumination angle. We then process and terrain-correct radar data sets acquired on April 16, 1994. In addition to the spectral data, we include surface slope to improve discrimination among several surface types. These data sets are then used in a decision tree to generate an image classification. This method is successful in identifying and mapping scree/talus, dry snow, dry snow-covered glacier, wet snow-covered glacier, and rock-covered glacier, as corroborated by comparison with existing surface cover maps and other ancillary information. Application of the classification scheme to data acquired on October 7 of the same year yields accurate results for most surface types but underreports the extent of dry snow cover.

Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets↗
USGS1999

Observations at the Mars Pathfinder site: Do they provide "unequivocal" evidence of catastrophic flooding?

After Mars Pathfinder landed at the mouth of Ares Valus, a large channel that drains into the Chryse Planitia basin, the mission reports unanimously supported the interpretation that the lander site is the locus of catastrophic flooding by noting that all aspects of the scene are consistent with this interpretation. However, alternatives cannot be ruled out by any site observations, as all aspects of the scene are equally consistent with other interpretations of origin, namely, ice and mass-flow processes subsequently modified by wind erosion. The authors discuss alternative explanations for the geologic history of the channel based on a regional view of the circum-Chryse channels from Viking images (our best broad-scale information to date) and the local view from the recent Pathfinder landing site. Mega-indicators of channel origin, the regional geomorphology, geology, and planetary climatic conditions, taken together suggest some combination of flood, mass flow, glacial, and eolian processes. The macro-indicators of channel origin (sedimentologic) are also not indicative of one process of emplacement, either as single criteria or taken cumulatively. Finally, the micro-indicators of channel origin (geochemical and mineralogic composition) do not provide very tight constraints on the deposits' possible origins other than that water was in some way involved.

Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets↗
USGS1998

Estimation of Mars radar backscatter from measured surface rock populations

Reanalysis of rock population data at the Mars Viking Lander sites has yielded updated values of rock fractional surface coverage (about 0.16 at both sites, including outcrops) and new estimates of rock burial depths and axial ratios. These data are combined with a finite difference time domain (FDTD) numerical scattering model to estimate diffuse backscatter due to rocks at both the Lander 1 (VL1) and Lander 2 (VL2) sites. We consider single scattering from both surface and subsurface objects of various shapes, ranging from an ideal sphere to an accurate digitized model of a terrestrial rock. The FDTD cross-section calculations explicitly account for the size, shape, composition, orientation, and burial state of the scattering object, the incident wave angle and polarization, and the composition of the surface. We calculate depolarized specific cross sections at 12.6 cm wavelength due to lossless rock-like scatterers of about 0.014 at VL1 and 0.023 at VL2, which are comparable to the measured ranges of 0.019–0.032 and 0.012–0.018, respectively. We also discuss the variation of the diffuse cross section as the local angle of incidence, θ i , changes. Numerical calculations for a limited set of rock shapes indicate a marked difference between the angular backscattering behavior of wavelength-scale surface and subsurface rocks: while subsurface rocks scatter approximately as a cosine power law, surface rocks display a complex variation, often with peak backscattering at high incidence angles (θ i = 70°–75°).

Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets↗
USGS1999

Preliminary results on photometric properties of materials at the Sagan Memorial Station, Mars

Reflectance measurements of selected rocks and soils over a wide range of illumination geometries obtained by the Imager for Mars Pathfinder (IMP) camera provide constraints on interpretations of the physical and mineralogical nature of geologic materials at the landing site. The data sets consist of (1) three small “photometric spot” subframed scenes, covering phase angles from 20° to 150°; (2) two image strips composed of three subframed images each, located along the antisunrise and antisunset lines (photometric equator), covering phase angles from ∼0° to 155°; and (3) full‐image scenes of the rock “Yogi,” covering phase angles from 48° to 100°. Phase functions extracted from calibrated data exhibit a dominantly backscattering photometric function, consistent with the results from the Viking lander cameras. However, forward scattering behavior does appear at phase angles >140°, particularly for the darker gray rock surfaces. Preliminary efforts using a Hapke scattering model are useful in comparing surface properties of different rock and soil types but are not well constrained, possibly due to the incomplete phase angle availability, uncertainties related to the photometric function of the calibration targets, and/or the competing effects of diffuse and direct lighting. Preliminary interpretations of the derived Hapke parameters suggest that (1) red rocks can be modeled as a mixture of gray rocks with a coating of bright and dark soil or dust, and (2) gray rocks have macroscopically smoother surfaces composed of microscopically homogeneous, clear materials with little internal scattering, which may imply a glass‐like or varnished surface.

Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets↗
USGS1999

Mars Pathfinder spectral measurements of Phobos and Deimos: Comparison with previous data

The Imager for Mars Pathfinder (IMP) acquired four spectra of parts of the sub‐Mars hemispheres of Phobos and Deimos. The measured region of Phobos is expected to be a mixture of the two spectral units identified on that satellite from Phobos 2 data, and the IMP spectra of Phobos are intermediate to the two units as expected. The derived geometric albedo is consistent with the value for that part of Phobos determined from Viking imagery. The IMP spectrum of Deimos is generally consistent with previous measurements acquired from the ground and from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), but the signal‐to‐noise ratio is lower than that of the Phobos data. The spectral contrast between the two moons is similar to that seen in HST and Phobos 2 data. Mars Pathfinder measurements therefore substantiate recent results which indicate that Phobos and Deimos are not, as previously believed, analogous to C‐type asteroids. They also provide some indications for an absorption near 700 nm, perhaps like that seen in other low‐albedo asteroids. Both Martian moons are redder than most asteroids, and most closely resemble two analog materials believed to have undergone very dissimilar histories: primitive D‐like asteroids, and highly space‐weathered, mafic‐rich assemblages, such as are present in lunar mare soils.

Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets↗
USGS1999

Ventifacts at the Pathfinder landing site

About half of the rocks at the Mars Pathfinder Ares Vallis landing site appear to be ventifacts, rocks abraded by windborne particles. Comparable resolution images taken by the Imager for Mars Pathfinder (IMP) camera and the Viking landers show that ventifacts are more abundant at the Pathfinder site. The ventifacts occur in several forms, including rocks with faceted edges, finger‐like projections, elongated pits, flutes, grooves, and possible rills. The trends of elongated pits, flutes, grooves, and rills cluster at ∼280–330° clockwise from north and generally dip 10–30° away from their trend direction. These orientations are indicative of southeast to northwest winds and differ from the trend of wind tails at the landing site, the direction of local wind streaks, and predictions of the Global Circulation Model, all of which indicate northeast to southwest winds. The disparity between these data sets strongly suggests that local circulation patterns have changed since the abrasion of the ventifacted rocks. The greater number of ventifacts at the Pathfinder site compared to either of the Viking sites is most easily explained as being due to a larger supply of abrading particles, composed of either sand‐sized grains or indurated dust aggregates, and higher surface roughness, which should increase the momentum of saltating grains. The Pathfinder ventifacts may have formed shortly after the deposition of outflow channel sediments nearly 2 Gry ago, when a large local supply of abrading particles should have been abundant and atmospheric conditions may have been more conducive to rock abrasion from saltating grains. Based on how ventifacts form on Earth, the several ventifact forms seen at the Pathfinder site and their presence on some rocks but not on others are probably due to local airflow conditions, original rock shape, exposure duration, rock movement, and to a lesser extent, rock lithology. The abundance of ventifacts at the Pathfinder site, together with other evidence of weathering, indicates that unaltered rock surfaces are rare on Mars.

Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets↗