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USGS1972

Model hydrographs

Model hydrographs are composed of pairs of dimensionless ratios, arrayed in tabular form, which, when modified by the appropriate values of rainfall exceed and by the time and areal characteristics of the drainage basin, satisfactorily represent the flood hydrograph for the basin. Model bydrographs are developed from a dimensionless translation hydrograph, having a time base of T hours and appropriately modified for storm duration by routing through reservoir storage, S=kOx. Models fall into two distinct classes: (1) those for which the value of x is unity and which have all the characteristics of true unit hydrographs and (2) those for which the value of x is other than unity and to which the unit-hydrograph principles of proportionality and superposition do not apply. Twenty-six families of linear models and eight families of nonlinear models in tabular form from the principal subject of this report. Supplemental discussions describe the development of the models and illustrate their application. Other sections of the report, supplemental to the tables, describe methods of determining the hydrograph characteristics, T, k, and x, both from observed hydrograph and from the physical characteristics of the drainage basin. Five illustrative examples of use show that the models, when properly converted to incorporate actual rainfall excess and the time and areal characteristics of the drainage basins, do indeed satisfactorily represent the observed flood hydrographs for the basins.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1972

Hydrologic interpretations based on infrared imagery of Long Island, New York

Six remote-sensing flights over Long Island's north and south shores were made during the period July 13, 1967, to February 25, 1970. Infrared imagery in the 8- to 14-micrometer range was obtained; results varied from poor to excellent in quality. The ability of the RS 7 and Reconofax IV imagers to discern thermal contrasts of as little .as 1 ? to 2?C (Celsius) permitted identification of areas of heavy ground-water discharge. These areas were concentrated primarily along the eroded headlands of the north shore and in the lower reaches of watercourses draining into Great South Bay. Only a few highly localized examples of direct ground-water discharge into the embankments ,along Long Island's south shore were detected in the imagery. Thermal loading emanating from a powerplant near Oceanside is shown to be quickly dissipated in Middle Bay. Specific examples show that infrared imagery may ,also be used to identify circulation patterns, ice cover, changes in stream-temperature regimen, and the location of sewer outfalls. Optimal time for the collection of infrared imagery for hydrologic studies on Long Island is in summer and in winter, when surface-water thermal differences are relatively large.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1973

Chemical quality of surface water in the Flaming Gorge Reservoir area, Wyoming and Utah

Construction of Flaming Gorge Dam on the Green River by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation started in 1959, and storage began in November 1962. A reconnaissance study was made during the period 1966-68 to determine the effects of the reservoir on the chemical quality of the effluent water and to describe the quality of the impounded water and inflowing water. The major inflow to the reservoir is from the Green River, which contributes an average of 81 percent of the water and 59 percent of the inflow load of dissolved solids. Together, Blacks Fork and Henrys Fork contribute an average of about 16 percent of the water and about 23 percent of the dissolved-solids load, whereas minor tributaries contribute approximately 3 percent of the total inflow water to the reservoir, but about 18 percent of the total incoming load of dissolved solids. The concentration of dissolved solids in the reservoir in October 1966 was about 150 mg/l (milligrams per liter) greater than the concentration of the 1962-66 inflow and in September 1968 about 95 mg/l greater than the concentration of the 1962-68 inflow. The increased concentration is due. mostly to leaching of minerals from the reservoir bottom. For the 1963-68 water years, about 1.2 million tons of dissolved solids was leached from inundated areas. The major observable difference between the chemical composition of the inflow during 1963-66 and that of the reservoir in 1966 is an increase in the percentage of sulfate and a decrease in the percentage of bicarbonate. Impoundment of water in Flaming Gorge Reservoir during the 1963-68 water years caused the concentration of dissolved solids in the river system to increase by 130 mg/l, or about 32 percent over what would have occurred without the reservoir. Evaporation accounted for an increase of 15 mg/l, and leaching accounted for an increase of 115 mg/l.

Utah, Wyoming↗
USGS1973

Appraisal of ground water for irrigation in the Little Falls area, Morrison County, Minnesota

Anticipated irrigation on sandy soils has prompted evaluation of ground-water supply potential in the Little Falls area. Geologic conditions cause ground-water availability to vary widely in the area. The largest and most readily available groundwater source is the glacial outwash sand and gravel from which the soils were derived. Test augering shows that the saturated surficial outwash is as much as 50-100 feet thick in the area where the outwash fills a probable former meltwater channel and that it is also this thick in smaller areas elsewhere. Transmissivity of the thicker parts of the aquifer approaches or exceeds 100,000 gallons per day per foot, and probable well yields should exceed 1,000 gallons per minute. In about two-thirds of the study area, a saturated thickness of less than 40 feet generally limits well yields to less than 300 gallons per minute. Recharge to the surficial aquifer is obtained primarily from precipitation. Most discharge occurs as evapotranspiration, base flow to the Mississippi River, and base flow to other streams and to lakes. Possible future response to pumping was studied through electric analog analyses by stressing the modeled aquifer system in accordance with areal variations in expected well yields. The model interpretation indicates most of the sustained pumpage would be obtained from intercepted base flow and evapotranspiration. Simulated withdrawals totaling 18,000 acre-feet of water per year for 10 years resulted in little adverse effect on the aquifer system. Simulated larger withdrawals, assumed to represent denser well spacing, caused greater depletion of aquifer storage, streamflow, and lake volumes, excessively so in some areas. Results of model analyses provide a guide for ground-water development by identifying the capability of all parts of the aquifer system to support sustained pumping for irrigation.

Minnesota↗
USGS1973

Improvement of trout streams in Wisconsin by augmenting low flows with ground water

Approximately 2 cubic feet per second of ground water were introduced into the Little Plover River in 1968 when natural streamflow ranged from 3 to 4 cubic feet per second. These augmentation flows were retained undiminished through the 2-mile reach of stream monitored. Maximum stream temperatures were reduced as much as 5?F (3?C) at the augmentation site during the test period, although changes became insignificant more than 1 mile downstream. Maximum temperatures might be reduced as much as 10?F (6?C) during critical periods, based on estimates using a stream temperature model developed as part of the study. During critical periods significant temperature improvement may extend 2 miles or more downstream. Changes in minimum DO (dissolved oxygen) levels were slight, primarily because of the high natural DO levels occurring during the test period. Criteria for considering other streams for flow augmentation are developed on the basis of the observed hydrologic responses in the Little Plover River. Augmentation flows of nearly 2? cubic feet per second of ground water were introduced into the headwater reach of Black Earth Creek from the end of June through mid-October 1969. Streamflow ranged from 1 to 2 cubic feet per second at the augmentation site, and the average flow at the gaging station at Black Earth, approximately 8 miles downstream, ranged from 25 to 50 cubic feet per second. Augmentation flows were retained through the 8-mile reach of stream. Temperature of the augmentation flow as it entered the stream ranged from 60? to 70?F (about 16? to 21?C) during the test period, and minimum stream temperatures were raised 5?F (3?C) or more at the augmentation site, with changes extending from 2 to 3 miles downstream. Augmentation during critical periods could maintain stream temperatures between 40? and 70?F (4? and 21?C) through most of the study reach. DO levels were increased by as much as 2 milligrams per liter or more below the augmentation site, although the improvement diminished to approximately 1 milligram per liter downstream in the problem reach. During critical periods DO improvement in the problem reach would be somewhat greater. Flow augmentation would not be necessary during normal conditions in either of the streams studied. Critical DO and temperature levels are not known to occur in the Little Plover River. Since the construction of secondary treatment facilities at the Cross Plains sewage-treatment plant, critical DO levels are no longer expected to be a problem in Black Earth Creek. However, results from this study may be used to estimate the effectiveness of flow augmentation in other streams in similar areas in which critical DO or temperature levels may occur.

Wisconsin↗
USGS1973

Ground water in the Eugene-Springfield area, southern Willamette Valley, Oregon

The cities of Eugene and Springfield and their outlying suburban and rural districts constitute an area of rapid population growth where progressively greater volumes of ground water are being required for irrigation and industrial and public supplies. The area is also one of diverse geologic and hydrologic conditions. As used in this report, the Eugene-Springfield area covers about 450 square miles and includes a part of the lower foothills of the Coast and Cascade Ranges and a strip of the main valley plain of the southern Willamette Valley. Volcanic and sedimentary rock units exposed in the foothills range in age from Eocene to Miocene. In the main valley plain the older units are overlain by Pleistocene and Holocene alluvial deposits. Marine-deposited sandstone, siltstone, shale, and mudstone of the older sedimentary units are fine grained and poorly permeable and yield water slowly to wells. The volcanic rocks, primarily of dacitic and andesitic composition, yield small quantities of water that are generally adequate only for domestic use. The alluvial deposits (sand and gravel) of the valley plain (central lowland) contain the most productive aquifers in the area and are considered to be the only ground-water reservoir for which large-scale development of ground-water supplies is feasible. Aquifers in the area are recharged principally by direct infiltration of precipitation. Most of the precipitation, which averages about 4C inches per year, occurs during late autumn and winter. Minimum recharge by infiltration of precipitation to the alluvial aquifers beneath the valley plain is estimated to be about 100,000 acre-feet. Ground water is discharged naturally from the central lowland by seepage and spring flow to small streams, by subsurface outflow to adjacent areas, and by evapotranspiration. Storage capacity of the central lowland in the Eugene-Springfield area is estimated to be about 2.1 million acre-feet in the zone 10-150 feet below land surface. The quantity of ground water available annually from this area is far greater than the 23,000 acre-feet pumped for all uses in 1968. This pumpage was about 23 percent of the perennial yield (100,000 acre-ft), and about 77,000 acre-feet of water was left available for additional withdrawal. If annual withdrawals of water were increased to 100,000 acre-feet per year, the levels in the ground-water reservoir would be lowered. Once new equilibriums are established, increased withdrawals could be accommodated without progressive losses in aquifer storage or excessive losses in flow of the larger streams. Ground water from the alluvial deposits of the valley plain is chemically suitable for irrigation and other uses, as is most of the water obtained from perched-water bodies in the sedimentary and volcanic rocks. However, the mineral content of water from the older sedimentary rocks, particularly from deeper producing zones, is greater than the mineral content of water from the alluvial deposits. Locally, some of the water from the older rocks is too saline for most uses. Increased use of ground water may result in certain problems pertaining to waste-disposal practices, local overdraft of aquifers, well interference, and well construction. Present data are adequate to evaluate some of the factors relating to foreseeable problems but allow only tentative conclusions to be drawn about other factors, which include local direction of flow, rate of ground-water movement, and areas of possible ground-water contamination. Additional information obtained through systematic study will be needed to deal with these problems.

Oregon↗
USGS1971

Subsurface waste disposal by means of wells - A selective annotated bibliography

Subsurface waste disposal by means of wells is the practice of using drilled wells to inject unwanted substances into underground rock formations. The use of wells for this purpose is not a new idea. As long ago as the end of the last century, it was common practice to drill wells for the express purpose of draining swamps and small lakes to reclaim the land for agricultural purposes. A few decades later in the 1920's and 1930's many oil companies began using injection wells to dispose of oil-field brines and to repressurize oil reservoirs. During World War II, the Atomic Energy Commission began using injection wells to dispose of certain types of radioactive wastes. More recently, injection wells have been drilled to dispose of a variety of byproducts of industrial processes. The number of such wells has increased rapidly since Congress passed the Clean Streams Act of 1966, which restricted the discharge of waste into surface waters. Many scientists and public officials question the propriety of using the term "disposal" when referring to the underground injection of wastes. Their reasons are that underground injection is not, as many advocates claim, "a complete and final answer" to the waste-disposal problem. Rather, it is merely a process wherein the injected wastes are committed to the subsurface with uncertainty as to their ultimate fate or limits of confinement. In effect, the wastes, undiminished and unchanged, are removed from the custody of man and placed in the custody of nature. Although the concept of waste-injection wells is relatively simple, the effects of waste injection can be very complex, particularly when dealing with the exotic and complex components of some industrial wastes. Besides the physical forces of injection, there are many varied interactions between the injected wastes and the materials within the injection zone. Because these changes occur out of sight in the subsurface, they are difficult to assess and not generally understood. In addition, the various aspects of the problem involve a wide spectrum of science and engineering. Hence, articles published on the subject are widely dispersed in the technical and scientific literature.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1972

Evaluation of yields of wells in consolidated rocks, Virginia to Maine

In the North Atlantic region, Virginia to Maine, yields of industrial and municipal wells are the most reliable indicators of the water-yielding potential of consolidated rocks. Generally, such wells represent efforts to develop a maximum supply of water, they are 350 to 500 feet deep, and they utilize 60 to 150 feet of drawdown. In multiple-well developments, average yields of wells per 100 feet of drawdown range from less than 75 gallons per minute in the least favorable rocks such as shale or granite gneiss to as much as 300 gallons per minute in limestone. In any one rock type, substantially greater than average sustained yields are possible in structurally deformed areas or in areas where recharge potential is especially favorable.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1975

Selenium in waters in and adjacent to the Kendrick Project, Natrona County, Wyoming

Selenium in concentrations exceeding the maximum limit, 0.01 milligrams per liter or 10 micrograms per liter, recommended by the U.S. Public Health Service in 'Drinking-Water Standards, 1962,' Public Health Pub. 956, is present in waters in areas near Casper, Wyo. Some streams containing selenium flow into the North Platte River upstream from several municipalities that obtain water from the river and the alluvium along the river. The area of this investigation includes about 725 square miles in Natrona County in central Wyoming. Study effort was most intensive within the area bounded by the North Platte River, Casper Creek, and Casper Canal, the approximate boundaries of the Kendrick irrigation project. Geologic formations in the area contain selenium that may have been derived from deposits of seleniferous material or from volcanic emanations brought down by rain. Formations older than Cretaceous age were not considered as important sources of selenium in waters of the area, because no irrigation water is applied to areas underlain by these rocks. The selenium concentration in 82 samples of Cretaceous rocks ranged from less than 10 to 4,200 ?g/kg (micrograms per kilogram of sample); no correlation was found between selenium concentration and the depth at which the sample was collected. Of four samples of Tertiary rocks analyzed, three contained no selenium and one had a selenium concentration of 40 ?g/kg. The selenium concentration in 93 samples of Quaternary rocks ranged from less than 10 to 52.0 ?g/kg, and the highest selenium concentration was generally found at depths less than 4 feet. No geologic formation has consistently high concentrations of selenium, but high concentrations were found at points throughout the study area. Probably the rocks in any locality could be the source of selenium in the water in the surrounding vicinity. The selenium concentration in water from some wells fluctuates widely. It is concluded that the selenium concentrations in the ground water in these areas have not reached a state of equilibrium in the aquifer. It is possible that such nonequilibrium conditions exist in aquifers throughout much of the area. If so, statements in this report concerning- trends of selenium concentration in ground water are somewhat speculative.Poison Spring Creek, Poison Spider Creek, Oregon Trail Drain, and Casper Creek are the principal tributaries that contribute selenium to the North Platte River. The selenium load, expressed in pounds per day, in Poison Spring Creek and Poison Spider Creek decreased slightly during the first year of sampling and increased slightly during the second year of sampling. The selenium load in Oregon Trail Drain is greatest in late winter and early spring during the period of low flow; the selenium load in Casper Creek varies, but shows no correlation with season and little correlation with stream discharge. The North Platte River above and below the irrigation project had consistently low selenium concentrations, 10 ?g/l (micrograms per liter) or less, in the period April 1968 through June 1969. The total selenium load contributed to the North Platte River from tributaries in the study area is almost undetectable after mixing with the river water. From the fall of 1968 .to the spring of 1969, results of water sampling in areas influenced by irrigation show that the selenium concentration increased at 29 percent of the locations (average net increase of 64 ?g/l), decreased at 34 percent of the locations (average net decrease of 80 ?g/l), and had little (10 ?g/l or .less) or no change at 37 percent of the locations. As a comparison, results of water sampling in areas not influenced by irrigation showed that the selenium concentration increased at 2 percent of the locations (average net increase of 30 ?g/l), decreased at 26 percent of the locations (average net decrease of 30?g/l), and had little or no change at 72 percent of the locations. It is not possible to

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1973

Water resources of the Big Sioux River Valley near Sioux Falls, South Dakota

The major sources of water in the Big Sioux River valley between Sioux Falls and Dell Rapids, S.Dak., are the Big Sioux River and the glacial outwash aquifer beneath the flood plain. The river and the aquifer are hydraulically connected. The Big Sioux River has an average annual discharge of 246 cubic feet per second, on the average exceeds bankfull stage every 2.3 years, and has moderate basin storage.. Periods of low flow are common in the late summer, fall, and winter. A low flow of 0.1 cubic foot per second has been recorded. The outwash aquifer is composed of permeable sand, sand and gravel, and some boulders. The aquifer underlies an area of 33 square miles and commonly has a saturated thickness of less than 30 feet. Aquifer tests and measurements of streamflow indicate a rate of streambed infiltration of about 6 gallons per day per square foot. Analyses of streambed samples and interpretations of lithology from an electric log indicate that the streambed sediments in the diversion channel of the Big Sioux River consist largely of relatively impermeable silts and clays. Under normal climatic conditions, most of the water pumped by the city of Sioux Falls is water that entered the aquifer by streambed infiltration. To evaluate the importance of the aquifer in the hydrologic system, both an electrical analog model and a digital model were programmed for storage depletion alone. These models were used to determine the water-level declines in the aquifer that would result from 1 year of withdrawal at a rate of 9-10 million gallons per day. Both models indicated that the existing well field can yield water at that rate for more than 1 year. The analog model was also used to determine the maximum average daily yield of the aquifer-river system for a 2-year period modeled for the minimum recorded stream discharge and for streambed infiltration as the only recharge. The maximum average yield under these conditions would be less than 24 million gallons per day. Most of the water pumped during this period would be from aquifer storage. Water from the river is generally less mineralized, softer, and easier to treat than ground water. Water pumped from wells near the river is similar in quality to the river water, but does not have the objectionable odors or tastes often present in water from the river.

South Dakota↗