Quality of surface waters for irrigation, western states 1969
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Water Supply Paper↗
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Hydrology of the Upper Malad River basin, southeastern Idaho
The report area comprises 485 square miles in the Basin and Range physiographic province. It includes most of eastern' Oneida County and parts of Franklin, Bannock, and Power Counties of southeastern Idaho. Relief is about 5,000 feet; the floor of the Malad Valley is at an average altitude of about 4,400 feet. Agriculture is, by far, ,the principal economic .activity. In 1960 the population of the upper Malad River basin was about 3,600, of which about 60 percent resided in Malad City, the county seat of Oneida County. The climate is semiarid throughout the Malad Valley and its principal tributary valleys; ,above 6,500 feet the climate is subhumid. Annual precipitation ranges from about 13 inches in the lower Malad Valley to more than 30 inches on the highest peaks of the Bannock and Malad ranges. Owing to ,the normally clear atmospheric conditions, large daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations are common. Topography, distance from the Pacific Ocean, .and the general atmospheric circulation are the principal factors governing the climate of the Malad River basin. The westerlies transport moisture from the P.acific Ocean toward southeastern Idaho. The north-south tren4ing mountains flanking the basin are oriented orthogonally to the moisture flux so that they are very effective in removing precipitable water from the air. A minimum uplift of 6,000 feet is required to transport moisture from the Pacific source region; accordingly, most air masses are desiccated long before they reach the Malad basin. Heaviest precipitation is generally associated with steep pressure gradients in the midtroposphere that are so oriented as to cause a deep landward penetration of moisture from the Pacific Ocean. Annual water yields in the project area range from about 0.8 inch in the, lower Malad Valley to more than 19 inches on the high peaks north and east of Malad City. The mean annual water yield for the entire basin is 4 inches, or about 115,000 acre-feet. Evaporation is greatest in July when about 7 inches is lost from lakes, reservoirs, and waterlogged areas; losses from free-water surfaces may be as much .as 38 inches annually. An extensive ground-water reservoir consisting of sand and gravel interbedded with relatively impermeable beds of silt .and clay underlies much of the Malad Valley. Wells near the center of the valley exceeding 700 feet in depth do not reach bedrock. The Woodruff fault, which transects the constricted lower Malad Valley, is one of the main factors creating artesian conditions south of the latitude of Malad City. Recharge is obtained principally from mountain runoff which flows onto highly permeable alluvial fans surrounding the valley and from streams that flow across the valley floor. On the basis of a water balance analysis, under flow from the project area was estimated to be 28,000 acre-feet annually, surface-water outflow was 51,000 acre-feet, and transbasin imports were about 4,000 acre-feet. The principal tributaries of the Malad River are perennial along their upper and middle reaches and have well-sustained low flows. During the growing season, all surface water entering the Malad Valley is used for irrigation. Spine irrigation is practiced in the principal tributary valleys; however, a shortage of suitable reservoir sites has hampered surface-water development in these areas. The highly porous deposits underlying the Malad Valley tend to attenuate flood peaks. An unusual combination of meteorologic events early in 1962 effectively counteracted the high absorptive capacity of the valley and predisposed the basin to high flood risk. Subsequent rapid snowmelt combined with frozen ground produced the extraordinary flood of February 12, 1962. Calcium and bicarbonate commonly are the most abundant ions in the surface waters of the upper Malad River basin. In August 1967, the dissolved-solids content of streamflow ranged from 200 to 350 milligrams per liter in the middle and upper parts of the basin; however, much greater values were measured in the Malad River between Woddruff and Cherry Creek Lane. With the exception of that reach, the surface water of the project area is suitable for irrigating all but the most sensitive crops. The total water yield is not sufficient to meet all the water needs of the basin. A comprehensive water-management plan is required to ensure optimal use of the water resource.
Idaho↗
The prevention of stream pollution by strawboard waste
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Water Supply Paper↗
Selected techniques in water resources investigations, 1966-67
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Water Supply Paper↗
Water resources of Windward Oahu, Hawaii
Windward Oahu lies in a large cavity--an erosional remnant of the Koolau volcanic dome at its greatest stage of growth. Outcrops include volcanic rocks associated with caldera collapse and the main fissure zone which is marked by a dike complex that extends along the main axis of the dome. The fissure zone intersects and underlies the Koolau Range north of Waiahole Valley. South of Waiahole Valley, the crest of the Koolau Range is in the marginal dike zone, an area of scattered dikes. The crest of the range forms the western boundary of windward Oahu. Dikes, mostly vertical and parallel or subparallel to the fissure zone, control movement and discharge of ground water because they are less permeable than the rocks they intrude. Dikes impound or partly impound ground water by preventing or retarding its movement toward discharge points. The top of this water, called high-level water in Hawaii, is at an altitude of about 1,000 feet in the north end of windward Oahu and 400 feet near the south end in Waimanalo Valley. It underlies most of the area and extends near or to the surface in poorly permeable rocks in low-lying areas. Permeability is high in less weathered mountain areas and is highest farthest away from the dike complex. Ground-water storage fluctuates to some degree owing to limited changes in the level of the ground-water reservoir--maximum storage is about 60,000 million gallons. The fluctuations control the rate at which ground water discharges. Even at its lowest recorded level, the reservoir contains a major part of the storage capacity because most of the area is perennially saturated to or near the surface. Tunnels have reduced storage by about 26,000 million gallons--only a fraction of the total storage--by breaching dike controls. Much of the reduction in storage can be restored if the .breached dike controls are replaced by flow-regulating bulkheads. Perennial streams intersect high-level water and collectively form its principal discharge. The larger streams are those that cut deepest into high-level reservoirs. Except near the coast in the northern end of the area, where dikes are absent, total base flow of streams equals total ground-water discharge. Development of high-level water by tunnels and wells diverts ground-water discharge from streams, decreasing the base flow of these streams. Construction of Haiku tunnel decreased the flow of Kahaluu Stream, 2 ? miles away, by about 26 percent. The dependable flow of water is estimated at 118 mgd (million gallons per day), of which 84 mgd is discharged by streams, tunnels, springs, and wells The remaining 34 mgd is underflow, most of it discharging into the sea near the northern end of ,the area. Average flow is estimated at 220 mgd, of which 159 mgd is. inventoried flow and 61 mgd is estimated underflow. Specific capacity of wells tapping lava flows of the Koolau Volcanic Series ranges from less than 1 to 11 gallons per minute per foot of drawdown in the dike-complex zone and from 2 to 100 in the marginal dike zone. A transmissivity of 4,000,000 gallons per day per foot was determined for the basal aquifer. Permeabilities of rocks in high mountainous areas penetrated by water-development tunnels were compared by recession constants determined from free-flow drainage. Evapotranspiration was estimated from regression curves obtained by correlating median annual rainfall and median annual pan evaporation. Evapotranspiration values from these curves compared favorably w4th values obtained from water-budget listings of rainfall and measured ground-water flow. The chemical quality of water in wells and tunnels tapping rocks of the Koolau and Honolulu Volcanic Series is excellent. Except in a few isolated areas near the shore, the chloride content of the water from these sources is generally less than 100 parts per million. Wells tapping calcareous materials are subject to sea-water contamination under heavy pumping.
Water Supply Paper↗
Summary of data on temperature of streams in North Carolina, 1943-67
This report summarizes stream-temperature data collected by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the State of North Carolina during the period 1943-67. Listed in two tables are summary values determined from records from 176 locations throughout the State. Of the 850 station years of record, 31 percent is monthly records, 50 percent is daily, and 19 percent is continuous. Table 1 shows average monthly, average annual, and extreme observed temperatures for the period of record at each location. Table 2, for stations having continuous water-temperature recorders, shows the following temperature variables: Average of monthly maximums, average of daily maximums, average daily, average of daily minimums, and average of monthly minimums.
North Carolina↗
Summary of data on chemical quality of streams of North Carolina, 1943-67
This report summarizes water-quality data collected by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the State of North Carolina during the period 1943-67. Maximum, minimum, and average values are shown for complete analyses of mineral constituents dissolved in water from 177 locations at which samples were collected daily or monthly for at least 1 consecutive year. Maximum and minimum values are given for 460 'miscellaneous and occasional stations' at which two or more chemical analyses were made. Single analyses are shown for 580 additional sampling sites. A total of about 19,000 analyses were used in determining statistical values included in the report. Water in streams of North Carolina is generally of good mineral quality and is acceptable with a minimum amount of treatment for most uses.
North Carolina↗
Ground-water hydrology of the San Pitch River drainage basin, Sanpete County, Utah
The San Pitch River drainage basin in central Utah comprises an area of about 850 square miles; however, the investigation was concerned primarily with the Sanpete and Arapien Valleys, which comprise about 250 square miles and contain the principal ground-water reservoirs in the basin. Sanpete Valley is about 40 miles long and has a maximum width of 13 miles, and Arapien Valley is about 8 miles long and 1 mile wide. The valleys are bordered by mountains and plateaus that range in altitude from 5,200 to 11,000 feet above mean sea level. The average annual precipitation on the valleys is about 12 inches, but precipitation on the surrounding mountains reaches a maximum of about 40 inches per year. Most of the precipitation on the mountains falls as snow, and runoff from snowmelt during the spring and summer is conveyed to the valleys by numerous tributaries of the San Pitch River. Seepage from the tributary channels and underflow beneath the channels are the major sources of recharge to the ground-water reservoir in the valleys. Unconsolidated valley fill constitutes the main ground-water reservoir in Sanpete and Arapien Valleys. The fill, which consists mostly of coalescing alluvial fans and flood deposits of the San Pitch River, ranges in particle size from clay to boulders. Where they are well sorted, these deposits yield large quantities of water to wells. Numerous springs discharge from consolidated rocks in the mountains adjacent to the valleys and along the west margin of Sanpete Valley, which is marked by the Sevier fault. The Green River Formation of Tertiary age and several other consolidated formations yield small to large quantities of water to wells in many parts of Sanpete Valley. Most water in the bedrock underlying the valley is under artesian pressure, and some of this water discharges upward into the overlying valley fill. The water in the valley fill in Sanpete Valley moves toward the center of the valley and thence downstream. The depth to water along parts of the sides of the valley is more than 100 feet, but in much of the central part of the valley, the water level is at or above the land surface. The valley fill pinches out in the southern part of the valley, and most of the ground water moves to the surface, where it discharges into the San Pitch River or is consumed by evapotranspiration. Ground water is discharged principally by wells, springs, and evapotranspiration. The discharge from wells varies considerably from year to year because most of the water is used for irrigation, and the wells are used only as necessary to supplement the available surface-water supply. Thus, in 1965, a year of above-normal precipitation, the discharge from wells was 12,000 acre-feet, whereas in 1966, a year of below-normal precipitation, the wells discharged 21,000 acre-feet. The discharge from springs during 1966 was estimated to be 36,000 acre-feet, and an additional 113,000 acre-feet of water was discharged by phreatophytes. Water levels in the valleys, for the most part, fluctuate in direct response to variations in precipitation, and the discharge from wells has had little long-term effect on water levels. Approximately 3 million acre-feet of water available to wells is stored in the upper 200 feet of saturated valley fill. The ground water in most parts of the valleys is fresh and suitable for public supply and irrigation. The Green River and Crazy Hollow Formations may, in some places, yield slightly or moderately saline water.
Utah↗
Ground-water resources of Natrona County, Wyoming
Natrona County covers an area of 5.369 square miles in central Wyoming. The climate is arid except in the mountainous areas. The county includes parts of the Great Plains, Middle Rocky Mountains, Wyoming Basin, and Southern Rocky Mountains physiographic provinces. There is wide variation of topography. More than 30 geologic formations are exposed in the county, 28 of which are known to yield water to wells and springs. The formations range in age from Precambrian to Holocene. Ground water in approximately 40 percent of the county contains more than 1.000 mg/l (milligrams per liter) of dissolved solids. Water chemically suitable for livestock can be developed at depths of less than 1,000 feet throughout most of the area. Many of the geologic formations were deposited under similar conditions and have similar water-bearing properties; also. water from these rocks deposited under similar conditions tends to have similar chemical characteristics. For this report, the stratigraphic section has been arbitrarily divided into six rock units based on similarity of deposition. The igneous and metamorphic rock unit includes rocks of Precambrian age and igneous intrusives and extrusives of Tertiary age. These rocks probably would not yield more than about 5 gpm (gallons per minute) to wells. The water is usually calcium bicarbonate type and contains less than 500 mg/l of dissolved solids. The marine rock unit includes formations of Cambrian, Mississippian, and Pennsylvanian and Permian age, having a maximum total thickness of about 1,900 feet. The Madison Limestone of Mississippian age and the Tensleep Sandstone and the Casper Formation of Pennsylvanian and Permian age supply the largest yields to wells and springs in the county. In the northeastern part of the county, flow from each of three wells in the Madison reportedly is more than 4.000 gpm. Each of three wells in the Tensleep in the same area flows more than 400 gpm. Yields of springs in the Casper Formation near Casper Mountain range from about 1.0 to 17 cubic feet per second. Ground water from near the outcrop of all these formations usually contains less than 500 rag/l of dissolved solids. The dissolved-solids content increases with distance from the outcrop and in places is more than 3.200 mg/l. Several types of water were found in this unit including sodium sulfate, calcium sodium sulfate, calcium sulfate, sodium calcium sulfate, sodium chloride, and calcium bicarbonate.
Water Supply Paper↗
Ground-water resources of the Clatsop Plains sand-dune area, Clatsop County, Oregon
Although the average annual precipitation of the Clatsop Plains is 78.5 inches, the area is not without problems of water supply. The Clatsop Plains area ix underlain by Tertiary bedrock of low permeability that stores and yields small quantities of ground water, which may be of poor chemical quality. This Tertiary bedrock furnishes only minor ground-water discharge to maintain the base flow of streams. The flow of rivers and creeks, normally abundant during the wet season, decreases greatly during the dry summer months. The lowlands are overlain by extensive deposits of dune and beach sand. The dune sand is permeable and can absorb and store, as fresh water, a large percentage of the annual precipitation. In the central part of the dune area, the saturated thickness of the sand ranges from 95 to more than 150 feet. Most of the ground water in the sand discharges to the ocean through beach-line seeps and underflow. Much of the water now being discharged to the ocean could be recovered by pumping from properly located, designed, and constructed wells. Three test wells drilled as part of this study are capable of yielding 100 gallons per minute although they are equipped with only short lengths of well screen. It is estimated that 2,500 acre-feet of ground water per year per square mile of area may be available for withdrawal in the 10 square mile area that is most favorable for development. The water from the dune sand is soft to moderately hard, has a low chloride concentration, and is of generally good chemical quality; however, at places it is weakly acidic and contains sufficient dissolved iron to make iron removal necessary for some uses. Ground water from shallow depths beneath a few swampy low-lying areas is brown and contains excessive concentrations of iron.
Water Supply Paper↗
Sediment transport by streams in the Palouse River basin, Washington and Idaho, July 1961-June 1965
The Palouse River basin covers about 3,300 square miles in southeastern Washington and northwestern Idaho. The eastern part of the basin is composed of steptoes and foothills which are generally above an altitude of 2,600 feet; the central part is of moderate local relief and is mantled chiefly by thick loess deposits; and the western part is characterized by low relief and scabland topography and is underlain mostly by basalt. Precipitation increases eastward across the study area. It ranges annually from 12 to 18 inches in the western part and from 14 to 23 inches in the central part, and it exceeds 40 inches in the eastern part. Surface runoff from the basin for the 4-year period of study (July 1961-June 1965) averaged 408,000 acre-feet per year, compared with 445,200 acre-feet per year for the 27-year period of record. The eastern part of the basin contributed about 55 percent of the total, whereas the central and western parts contributed 37 percent and 8 percent, respectively. Most sediment transport from the Palouse River basin and the highest sediment concentrations in streams occurred in the winter. Of the several storms during the study period, those of February 3-9, 1963, December 22-27, 1964, and January 27-February 4, 1965, accounted for 81 percent of the total 4-year suspended-sediment load; the storm of February 3-9, 1963, accounted for nearly one-half the total load. The discharge-weighted mean concentration of suspended sediment carried in the Palouse River past Hooper during the study period was 2,970 milligrams per liter. The average annual sediment discharge of the Palouse River at its mouth was about 1,580,000 tons per year, and the estimated average annual sediment yield was 480 tons per square mile. The yield ranged from 5 tons per square mile from the western part of the basin to 2,100 tons per square mile from the central part. The high yield from the central part is attributed to a scarcity of vegetal cover, to the fine-grained loess soils, and to rapid runoff during winter storms. Sediment yield from the eastern part of the basin ranged from 460 to more than 1,000 tons per square mile. During high flow, silt particles make up the largest part of the suspended-sediment load, whereas during low flow, clay particles represent the greatest part. On the average, the suspended sediment transported by the Palouse River past Hooper contained 3 percent sand, 68 percent silt, and 29 percent clay. Unmeasured sediment discharge was estimated to have been 5 percent of the total sediment discharge. Data collected during the 4-year period of study show that sediment loads were higher than those recorded by V. G. Kaiser during the longer period 1939-65. Whereas Kaiser's study showed an average annual soil loss of 9.6 million tons, the average annual loss during the recent study was 14.2 million tons. The factor that has had the greatest effect on the increase of sediment yields is land use. Lands once covered and protected by natural vegetation have been extensively, cultivated, and much of the soil has become susceptible to erosion, particularly in areas mantled by loessal soils.
Idaho, Washington↗
Ground water for irrigation in the Brooten-Belgrade area, west-central Minnesota
Water for irrigation is needed to improve crop yields from sandy soils in the Brooten-Belgrade area. Ground-water supplies of sufficient quantity and suitable quality for irrigation are available in much of the area. Quaternary glacial drift, as much as 300 feet thick, is underlain by Precambrian crystalline rocks and possibly by Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. Sand and gravel aquifers are buried at various depths in the drift and can be located by test drilling. One buried aquifer, possibly capable of high yields, is within 250 feet of the land surface in the vicinity of Belgrade. Glacial outwash comprises the upper part of the drift in most of the project area and is locally more than 100 feet thick. The outwash is made up of crossbedded sand and gravel that is interbedded in places with silt and clay deposits and has a saturated thickness of as much as 65 feet. Locally, the transmissivity of the surficial aquifer is as much as 60,000 gallons per day per foot, but elsewhere is generally less than 30,000 gallons per day per foot. The aquifer should yield more than 300 gallons per minute and locally more than 1,000 gallons per minute to individual wells in much of the northern and southwestern parts of the area. Recharge to the surficial aquifer is almost entirely from precipitation. Significant ground-water losses occur as base flow and underflow, and through evaporation and transpiration. Water in the buried and surficial aquifers is of the calcium magnesium bicarbonate type and is of suitable quality for irrigation. An analog model, simulating yearly 30-day pumping periods and hypothetical volumes and distributions of withdrawals, showed the effects on the surficial aquifer of withdrawals of about 20,000 acre-feet per pumping season for 20 years. Predicted water-level declines caused by withdrawals of 20,000 acre-feet per pumping season were generally less than 5 feet in the surficial aquifer and years Predicted water-level declines caused by withdrawals of 20,000 acre-feet pumping season caused predicted water-table declines of more than 10 feet in large parts of the area and caused lake-level declines of as much as 8 feet. The model indicated that water removed from aquifer and lake storage accounted for less than 50 percent of all withdrawals; the remainder was accounted for by water recovered from stream base flow and by water diverted from evaporation and transpiration.
Minnesota↗
Water resources of the Big Black River basin, Mississippi
Abundant supplies of water of good quality are available in the Big Black River basin from either ground-water or surface-water sources. For 90 percent of the time flow in the lower part of the Big Black River below Pickens is not less than 85 cfs (cubic feet per second), and low flows of more than 5 cfs are available in five of the eastern tributary streams in the upper half of the basin. Chemical quality of water in the streams is excellent, except for impairment caused by pollution at several places. The Big Black River basin is underlain by several thousand feet of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and limestone. This sedimentary material is mostly loose to semiconsolidated and is stratified. The beds dip to the southwest at the rate of 20 to 50 feet per mile. The Big Black River flows southwestward but at a lower gradient; therefore, any specific formation is at a greater depth below the river the farther one goes down stream. The formations crop out in northwest-southeast trending belts. Most of the available ground water is contained in six geologic units; thickness of these individual units ranges from 100 to 1,000 feet. The aquifers overlap to the extent that a well drilled to the base of fresh water will, in most places, penetrate two or more aquifers. Well depths range from less than 10 to 2,400 feet. Water suitable for most needs can be obtained from the aquifers available at most localities. Dissolved-solids content of water within an aquifer increases down the dip. Also, generally the deeper a well is the higher will be the dissolved-solids content of the water. Shallow ground water (less than 200 ft deep) in the basin usually contains about 100 mg/l (milligrams per liter) of dissolved solids. Most water in the basin from more than 2,500 feet below land surface contains m ore than 1,000 mg/l of dissolved solids. In several areas fresh water is deeper than 2,500 feet, but near the mouth of the Big Black River brackish water is only about 300 feet below land surface. Practically all water pumped for man's use in the basin is from the ground (about 11 million gallons per day); however, a small amount of surface water is used for supplemental irrigation of row crops. Wells producing 500 to 1,000 gpm (gallons per minute) are not unusual in the basin. Most of the area is underlain by one or more aquifers from which a properly constructed well could produce as much as 2,000 gpm. All the towns in the area have sufficient ground water available to at least double or triple their ground-water pumpage.
Water Supply Paper↗
Geohydrology of Hualapai and Sacramento Valleys, Mohave County, Arizona
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Water Supply Paper↗
Streamflow from the United States into the Atlantic Ocean during 1931-1960
Streamflow from the United States into the Atlantic Ocean, between the international stream St. Croix River, inclusive, and Cape Sable, Fla., averaged about 355,000 cfs (cubic feet per second) during the 30-year period 1931-60, or roughly 20 percent of the water that, on the average flows out of the conterminous United States. The area drained by streams flowing into the Atlantic Ocean is about 288,000 square miles, including the Canadian part of the St. Croix and Connecticut River basins, or a little less than 10 percent of the area of the conterminous United States. Hence, the average streamflow into the Atlantic Ocean, in terms of cubic feet per second per square mile, is about twice the national average of the flow that leaves the conterminous United States. Flow from about three-fourths of the area draining into the Atlantic Ocean is gaged at streamflow measuring stations of the U.S. Geological Survey. The remaining one-fourth of the drainage area consists mostly of low-lying coastal areas from which the flow was estimated, largely on the basis of nearby gaging stations. Streamflow, in terms of cubic feet per second per square mile, decreases rather progressively from north to south. It averages nearly 2 cfs along the Maine coast, about 1 cfs along the North Carolina coast, and about 0.9 cfs along the Florida coast.
Water Supply Paper↗
Ground water for irrigation near Lake Emily, Pope County, west-central Minnesota
In the Lake Emily area, thickness of the glacial drift ranges from about 200 feet to more than 400 feet. Within the drift are sand and gravel aquifers, some of which can yield adequate water supplies for irrigation. Outwash, as much as 60 feet thick, lies at the surface. The outwash has saturated thicknesses of more than 40 feet and transmissivities of more than 50,000 gallons per day per foot locally in the northern and western parts of the area. In the places of large saturated thickness and high hydraulic conductivity, the aquifer should yield more than 600 gallons per minute to wells. Theoretical maximum yields to wells in most of the area are more than 100 gallons per minute. Chemically, water in the buried and surficial aquifers is mainly of a calcium magnesium bicarbonate type and is suitable for irrigation. Calculated and estimated sodium adsorption ratios and salinity and boron concentrations are below the limits recommended by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Minnesota↗