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USGS2015

Climate change and prairie pothole wetlands: mitigating water-level and hydroperiod effects through upland management

Prairie pothole wetlands offer crucial habitat for North America’s waterfowl populations. The wetlands also support an abundance of other species and provide ecological services valued by society. The hydrology of prairie pothole wetlands is dependent on atmospheric interactions. Therefore, changes to the region’s climate can have profound effects on wetland hydrology. The relevant literature related to climate change and upland management effects on prairie pothole wetland water levels and hydroperiods was reviewed. Climate change is widely expected to affect water levels and hydroperiods of prairie pothole wetlands, as well as the biota and ecological services that the wetlands support. In general, hydrologic model projections that incorporate future climate change scenarios forecast lower water levels in prairie pothole wetlands and longer periods spent in a dry condition, despite potential increases in precipitation. However, the extreme natural variability in climate and hydrology of prairie pothole wetlands necessitates caution when interpreting model results. Recent changes in weather patterns throughout much of the Prairie Pothole Region have been in increased precipitation that results in increased water inputs to wetlands above losses associated with warmer temperatures. However, observed precipitation increases are within the range of natural climate variability and therefore, may not persist. Identifying management techniques with the potential to affect water inputs to prairie pothole wetlands would provide increased options for managers when dealing with the uncertainties associated with a changing climate. Several grassland management techniques (for example, grazing and burning) have the potential to affect water levels and hydroperiods of prairie pothole by affecting infiltration, evapotranspiration, and snow deposition.

Prairie Pothole Region↗

USGS2017

Multiple-source tracking: Investigating sources of pathogens, nutrients, and sediment in the Upper Little River Basin, Kentucky, water years 2013–14

The South Fork Little River (SFLR) and the North Fork Little River (NFLR) are two major headwater tributaries that flow into the Little River just south of Hopkinsville, Kentucky. Both tributaries are included in those water bodies in Kentucky and across the Nation that have been reported with declining water quality. Each tributary has been listed by the Kentucky Energy and Environment Cabinet—Kentucky Division of Water in the 303(d) List of Waters for Kentucky Report to Congress as impaired by nutrients, pathogens, and sediment for contact recreation from point and nonpoint sources since 2002. In 2009, the Kentucky Energy and Environment Cabinet—Kentucky Division of Water developed a pathogen total maximum daily load (TMDL) for the Little River Basin including the SFLR and NFLR Basins. Future nutrient and suspended-sediment TMDLs are planned once nutrient criteria and suspended-sediment protocols have been developed for Kentucky. In this study, different approaches were used to identify potential sources of fecal-indicator bacteria (FIB), nitrate, and suspended sediment; to inform the TMDL process; and to aid in the implementation of effective watershed-management activities. The main focus of source identification was in the SFLR Basin. To begin understanding the potential sources of fecal contamination, samples were collected at 19 sites for densities of FIB ( E. coli ) in water and fluvial sediment and at 11 sites for Bacteroidales genetic markers (General AllBac, human HF183, ruminant BoBac, canid BacCan, and waterfowl GFD) during the recreational season (May through October) in 2013 and 2014. Results indicated 34 percent of all E. coli water samples ( n =227 samples) did not meet the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2012 recommended national criteria for primary recreational waters. No criterion currently exists for E. coli in fluvial sediment. By use of the Spearman’s rank correlation test, densities of FIB in fluvial sediments were observed to have a statistically significant positive correlation with drainage area. As drainage area increased, so did the densities of FIB in the fluvial sediments. There was no statistically significant correlation between drainage area and FIB in water. The human-associated marker (HF183) was found above the detection limit in 26 percent of the samples ( n =120 samples); a higher proportion of positive samples was in the NFLR Basin. The ruminant-associated marker (BoBac) was above the detection limit in 65 percent of samples; a higher proportion of positive samples was in the headwaters of the SFLR Basin. Nutrient yields differed between the SFLR and NFLR Basins. Comparatively, the SFLR Basin produced the largest estimated mean yields of total nitrogen (16,000 pounds per year per square mile (lb/yr/mi 2 ) and nitrite plus nitrate nitrogen (12,500 lb/yr/mi 2 ), and the NFLR Basin produced the largest estimated mean yields of ammonia plus organic nitrogen (4,700 lb/yr/mi 2 ), total phosphorus (1,100 lb/yr/mi 2 ), and orthophosphorus (590 lb/yr/mi 2 ). Nitrate sources in surface water were assessed in both basins using dual-nitrate isotope (nitrogen and oxygen) ratios. Data from the different land uses in the SFLR Basin showed differences in nitrate concentrations and overlapping, but moderately distinct, isotopic signatures. Predominantly forested sites consistently had low nitrate concentrations (median = 0.233 milligrams per liter) with minimal variability, and agricultural sites had the highest nitrate concentrations (median = 7.55 milligrams per liter) with the greatest variability. The median nitrate concentration for sites with mixed land use was 2.66 milligrams per liter. Dual-isotope data for forested sites plotted within ranges characteristic of soil-derived nitrate with possible but minimal influence from recycled atmospheric nitrate. Ranges of dual-isotope data for sites with agricultural and mixed land uses were characteristic of possible mixtures of chemical fertilizer, soil-derived nitrate, and manure and septic wastes. In the NFLR Basin, a positive linear relation was observed between nitrate concentrations and nitrogen isotope ratios (δ 15 N NO3 ) (R 2 =0.56; p -value <0.001) that potentially suggests the NFLR Basin has a higher proportion of δ 15 N NO3 -enriched sources, such as manure and sewage. However, mixing of other nitrate-derived sources cannot be excluded, because many values of δ 15 N NO3 and concentrations of nitrate showed minimal variation and plotted within dual-nitrate isotope ranges characteristic of fertilizer and soil-derived nitrate sources. A sediment-fingerprinting approach was used to quantify the relative contribution of four upland sources in the SFLR Basin (agricultural, pasture, riparian/forest, and streambank) to understand how land management affects suspended-sediment concentration. Carbon isotope ratios (δ 13 C), together with calcium and carbon concentrations, were the best indicators of sediment source; the uncertainty was less than 11 percent. Fine-sediment samples collected at the SFLR Basin outlet indicated streambanks as the largest source of the fine sediment to the stream followed by cropland and riparian/forest-source areas, respectively; pasture was a minor contributing source. Streambanks and cropland were essentially equal contributors of fine sediment at the NFLR Basin outlet.

Kentucky↗

USGS2019

Escherichia coli and microbial source tracking marker concentrations in and near a constructed wetland in Maumee Bay State Park, Oregon, Ohio, 2015–16

Elevated Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) concentrations at the Maumee Bay State Park (MBSP) Lake Erie beach have resulted in frequent recreational water-quality advisories. After the construction of a wetland along Berger Ditch in Maumee Bay State Park, Oregon, Ohio, samples were collected and analyzed for concentrations of E. coli and microbial source tracking (MST) markers. This study was done by the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the University of Toledo, to provide data that can be used to help evaluate the effects of the wetland on water quality in MBSP. From July 2015 to February 2016, 116 samples were collected from six sites. Median GenBac (general marker) and E. coli concentrations were higher in samples from Berger Ditch sites than in samples from the wetland sites. No statistically significant difference was found between median E. coli concentrations in samples collected at Berger Ditch sites upstream and downstream from the wetland. The frequency of detection of the human-associated Bacteroides MST marker (HF183) decreased from 39 percent upstream from the wetland to 22 percent downstream from the wetland; however, the HF183 median concentrations from these two groups of samples were nearly the same (2,700 to 2,800 copies per 100 milliliters from upstream to downstream). The waterfowl-associated Helicobacter MST marker (GFD) was detected in 13 percent of samples from the Berger Ditch site upstream from the wetland, although it was not detected in samples from the Berger Ditch site downstream from the wetland. The ruminant-associated MST marker, Rum2Bac, was not detected at any site during this study.

Ohio↗

USGS2019

Water-balance modeling of selected lakes for evaluating viability as long-term fisheries in Kidder, Logan, and Stutsman Counties, North Dakota

Water levels in lakes and wetlands in the central North Dakota Missouri Coteau region that were either dry or only sporadically held water since before the 1930s have been rising since the early 1990s in response to an extended wet period. The lakes have remained full since the mid-1990s, which has provided benefits to migratory waterfowl, fisheries, and wildlife. A small shift in climate conditions, either to drier or wetter conditions, can have a large effect on the lake levels of these water bodies. The North Dakota Game and Fish Department identified five lakes as candidates for sustaining long-term fisheries. The lakes are in Kidder, Stutsman, and Logan Counties, and some lakes might receive inflow from mostly freshwater aquifers, such as the Central Dakota and Streeter aquifers, and were mostly dry during the early 1990s. After about 1995, the lakes had filled up and were deep enough to sustain populations of game fish such as walleye, perch, and northern pike. Before investing in development of permanent fisheries and associated infrastructure, such as campgrounds and boat ramps, fisheries biologists needed to know if the lake levels are likely to remain high in coming decades. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the North Dakota Game and Fish Department, developed a water-balance model to determine the effects of precipitation, evapotranspiration, and groundwater interaction on lake volumes. The model was developed using climate input data and lake volumes for the calibration period 1992 through 2016, during which historical lake volumes could be estimated using land surface elevation data and Landsat images. Long-term (1940–2018) climate input data were used with the water-balance model to reconstruct historical lake volumes prior to the calibration period, and block-bootstrapping was used to simulate potential future climate input data and lake volumes for 2017 through 2067. The simulated future lake volumes were used to estimate the likelihood of annual lake volumes remaining consistent, increasing, or decreasing through the year 2067. Of the five lakes, Sibley Lake was the most likely to sustain a long-term fishery for a period longer than 50 years. The simulated lake volumes for Alkaline Lake, Big Mallard Marsh, and Remmick Lake indicated the lakes have a 50-percent chance to fall below 75 percent of their 2016 volume by about 2030, 2067, and 2025, respectively. Simulation results for Marvin Miller Lake were substantially different compared to the other four lakes and indicated the lake has a 50-percent chance to fall below 75 percent of its 2016 volume prior to 2025.

North Dakota↗

USGS2020

Evaluation of restoration alternatives using hydraulic models of lake outflow at Wapato Lake National Wildlife Refuge, northwestern Oregon

Wapato Lake National Wildlife Refuge near the city of Gaston in northwestern Oregon was established in 2013, and planning is underway to restore a more natural lake and wetland system after more than 100 years of agricultural activity on the lakebed. Several water-management and restoration alternatives are under consideration, one of which involves opening and reconnecting Wapato Lake’s outlet to allow flow in and out of the lake to Wapato Creek and downstream to the Tualatin River. The effects of this and other alternatives are being evaluated, partly through a detailed examination of the lake’s water budget. The water budget for the lake during 2011–13 was quantified by the U.S. Geological Survey in partnership with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and others. Results were incorporated in a spreadsheet-based Water Management Scenario Tool (WMST) for Wapato Lake, which predicts the effects of various management actions on daily lake level and potential habitat areas for waterfowl or other target species. Incorporating the effects of a hypothetical open outlet between the lake and the downstream river network in the WMST was accomplished by using a hydraulic model to simulate the flow-exchange rate between Wapato Lake and Wapato Creek over a wide range of lake levels and downstream river conditions. A Hydraulic Engineering Center-River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) one-dimensional unsteady flow model was constructed and calibrated for Wapato Creek and part of the Tualatin River using data from October 2011 to April 2013, and then was used to simulate daily lake/creek exchange flows in water years 1992–2014 under hypothetically constant lake levels. Results were used to populate a table of lake/creek flow-exchange rates for use in the WMST; a dynamic link between the WMST and HEC-RAS was unrealistic because it would require hundreds of calls to HEC-RAS and result in long run times for a single water-year’s WMST calculations with daily time steps. Predictions of daily outlet flows from the WMST were checked against HEC-RAS simulated flows under daily varying lake levels to ensure that the timing and magnitude of lake/creek exchange flows used by the WMST were consistent with those of the hydraulic model. Two scenarios were tested with a hypothetical open lake outlet to show how the WMST could be used to inform restoration planning—one scenario used a year-round open lake outlet, and the other scenario closed that outlet for part of the high-water winter season. Results showed that flows in and out of a year-round open lake outlet would dominate the lake’s water budget and produce water depths during winter and through mid-summer that might be too deep to support waterbird species that require shallow water. Closing the lake outlet during large winter storms and high-water conditions in the downstream river network would isolate the lake from surrounding rivers, keep the lake level lower, and retain substantially more shallow-water areas. Because of the ease with which management alternatives can be evaluated, a water-budget spreadsheet tool such as the WMST has been a valuable part of an analysis of potential water-management and restoration alternatives for Wapato Lake National Wildlife Refuge.

Oregon↗

USGS2020

Assessment of water quality and fecal contamination sources at Hook Pond, East Hampton, New York

Summary The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Village of East Hampton, New York, conducted a 1-year study from August 2017 to August 2018 to provide data necessary to improve understanding of the sources of nutrients and pathogens to Hook Pond watershed to allow for possible mitigation or reduction of loads. Chronic eutrophication and recent concern over harmful cyanobacteria in Hook Pond are the result of past and present land uses and a changing climate that have prompted the Village of East Hampton and local businesses to study and remediate factors contributing to the persistent loading of nutrients, organic contaminants, and pathogens. This assessment of Hook Pond, Hook Pond Dreen, and shallow groundwater provides the most comprehensive set of water-quality data to date. Interpretations presented in this study and the data on which they are based can be used to support management decisions, inform and contribute to modeling, and serve as a baseline for future assessments. Results from continuous monitoring of water temperature, specific conductance, and elevation at Hook Pond site 10 (Maidstone Club golf cart bridge), as well as ancillary weather and tidal data from nearby stations, were used to help explain seasonal and storm-related concentration variation of nitrogen, phosphorus, wastewater-indicator compounds, and pathogens. Data collected were also compared to existing historical data. Physicochemical constituents measured on a routine basis throughout the pond and along the tributary showed the spatial variability in water temperature, specific conductance, dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity, and chlorophyll a and phycocyanin fluorescence. A lakebed survey was compiled based on the year-round sampling throughout the pond for future comparisons. Water-quality data from shallow groundwater at points around Hook Pond and adjacent to Hook Pond Dreen were interpreted and quantified to estimate relative contributions and species of nutrients, wastewater-indicator compounds, and microbial source tracking (MST) markers to base flow. To supplement the continuous water-surface elevation data, a single set of discharge measurements was collected under normal (nonstorm) conditions to better understand the relative contributions and dilution of surface waters by contaminated groundwater. The nutrient and physicochemical data from this study can be used in conjunction with current and future models and decision support tools to guide planned and ongoing restoration efforts, such as dredging to reduce sediment accumulation, opening a pathway to the ocean (which would change the salinity and flow dynamics of the pond and adjacent groundwater), and addressing growing concerns over cyanobacterial blooms, while serving as a baseline for measuring changes resulting from sea-level rise, climate change, and changes in nutrient loading. The microbial source tracking and indicator bacteria results can help direct efforts to reduce runoff and direct contributions of fecal contamination from dogs and waterfowl along Hook Pond Dreen. The results can also be used to assess the current state of wastewater infrastructure surrounding and contributing to Hook Pond Dreen, based on detection of human markers throughout the year and with both Bacteroides and coliphage methods.

New York↗

USGS2022

Understanding sources and distribution of Escherichia coli at Lake St. Clair Metropark Beach, Macomb County, Michigan

Lake St. Clair Metropark Beach (LSCMB) in Michigan is a public beach near the mouth of the Clinton River that has a history of beach closures for public health concerns. The Clinton River is designated as a Great Lakes Area of Concern, and the park has a Beneficial Use Impairment for beach closings because of elevated Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) concentrations. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and in collaboration with the Michigan Department of the Environment, Great Lakes, and Energy, Macomb County Health Department, and Huron-Clinton Metroparks, completed a 2-year study to determine sources of E. coli in LSCMB. Samples were collected during dry and wet weather periods to observe the sampling sites under different conditions. Nearshore surface water samples were collected biweekly July through October in 2018 and May through September in 2019. There were 20 sampling sites along the shoreline of the park and in the channel north of the park. In addition to collecting nearshore surface-water samples, samples were collected from shallow groundwater, lake-bottom material, standing water on the beach and surrounding the recreational beach area, solids (beach sands and detritus), and offshore surface-water sites. In 2019, additional samples for microbial source tracking (MST) were collected on three dates in midsummer and were analyzed for human (HF183) and bird/waterfowl (GFD) MST markers. The concentrations of E. coli at LSCMB (in order of highest to lowest E. coli concentrations) were as follows: shallow groundwater nearest to the water’s edge, surface sands and organic matter (detritus), standing water on the beach, nearshore surface water in and surrounding the recreational beach area, lake-bottom material, and offshore surface water. The combination of low E. coli concentrations offshore and higher concentrations nearshore indicate nearshore sources, possibly from beach sands or groundwater, rather than sources coming from offshore Lake St. Clair waters. The subset of samples for MST analysis did not have enough positive results to illustrate MST trends, but this study demonstrated that both human and waterfowl sources can affect the water quality at LCSMB.

Michigan↗

USGS2022

Using microbial source tracking to identify fecal contamination sources in Patchogue and Bellport Bays on Long Island, New York

The U.S. Geological Survey worked in cooperation with the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation to assess the potential sources of fecal contamination entering Patchogue and Bellport Bays, two embayments on the south shore of Suffolk County, Long Island, New York. Water samples are routinely collected by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation in the bays and analyzed for fecal coliform bacteria, an indicator of fecal contamination, to determine the need for closure of shellfish beds for harvest and consumption. Fecal coliform and other bacteria are an indicator of the potential presence of pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria. However, indicator bacteria alone cannot determine the biological or geographical sources of contamination; therefore, microbial source tracking was implemented to determine various biological sources of contamination. In addition, information such as the location, weather and season, and surrounding land use where a sample was collected help determine the geographical source and conveyance of land-based water to the embayment. Analysis revealed that the most substantial source of fecal contamination to Patchogue and Bellport Bays was discharge from sites draining ponds and wetlands into the rivers and tributaries sampled, particularly during the summer months. Fecal coliform bacteria at sites where ponds and wetlands drain are increased by stormwater runoff, which is another substantial source of fecal contamination. Overall, canine- and waterfowl-associated bacterial contributions were prevalent in source samples in both bays. Human-associated markers were present in surface-water source samples and completely absent in receptor samples in Patchogue Bay. The Fireplace Neck receptor site in Bellport Bay had a human-associated marker present in the summer wet sample only. Human markers were detected at the sample site downstream from the Patchogue wastewater treatment plant but were associated with low fecal coliform concentrations, indicating that the wastewater treatment plant is not a likely source of fecal contamination to Patchogue Bay. The lack of human-associated marker detections within Patchogue and Bellport Bays in summer source samples coupled with low to no detections of fecal coliform, especially where small marinas are present in creeks and tributaries, suggest that boats do not substantially contribute fecal coliform bacteria to the bays. There was little evidence of groundwater-contributing fecal bacteria by direct discharge from the subsurface. Further, the sandy sediment alongside Patchogue and Bellport Bays is unlikely to contribute fecal coliform bacteria from the test host organisms when resuspended in the water column. A classification scheme was developed to convey the degree of fecal contamination to stakeholders and resource managers. Based on this classification scheme, the Corey Creek Near Middle Road, Patchogue River Near Division Street, and Swan River Mouth sampling sites were identified as locations that contribute substantial fecal contamination to Patchogue Bay. In Bellport Bay, the Culvert at Beaverdam Creek site was identified as the location contributing the most substantial fecal contamination.

New York↗

USGS2022

Using microbial source tracking to identify fecal contamination sources in Sag Harbor on Long Island, New York

The U.S. Geological Survey worked in cooperation with the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation to assess the potential sources of fecal contamination entering Sag Harbor, an embayment complex on the northern shore of the south fork of Suffolk County, Long Island, New York. Water samples are routinely collected by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation in the harbor and analyzed for fecal coliform bacteria, an indicator of fecal contamination, to determine the need for closure of shellfish beds for harvest and consumption. Fecal coliform and other bacteria are an indicator of the potential presence of pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria. However, indicator bacteria alone cannot determine the biological or geographical sources of contamination; therefore, microbial source tracking was implemented to determine various biological sources of contamination. In addition, information such as the location, weather and season, and surrounding land use where a sample was collected help determine the geographical source and conveyance of land-based water to the embayment. Analysis revealed that the most substantial source of fecal contamination to Sag Harbor was discharge from sites draining ponds and wetlands, particularly during the summer months. Fecal coliform bacteria at sites where ponds and wetlands drain are increased by stormwater runoff, which is another substantial source of fecal contamination. Human markers were detected in all four samples at the Sag Harbor Sewage Treatment Plant Outfall site but were associated with low fecal coliform concentrations, indicating that the sewage treatment plant is not a likely source of fecal contamination to the embayment. The Ligonee Brook Culvert, Paynes Creek near Marjorie Lane, and Otter Pond Culvert sites were identified as locations that contribute fecal contamination to Sag Harbor. These three locations had high fecal coliform bacteria concentrations in the summer, one of which was positive for canine microbial source tracking markers (Ligonee Brook Culvert), and another positive for waterfowl markers (Paynes Creek near Marjorie Lane). The absence of fecal coliform bacteria and human microbial source tracking markers in groundwater samples indicates that water from septic systems does not influence the harbor; however, elevated fecal coliform bacteria concentrations were not often detected. Further, the sandy sediment alongside Sag Harbor is unlikely to contribute fecal coliform bacteria when resuspended in the water column through tidal shifts or boat activity.

New York↗

USGS2022

Using microbial source tracking to identify fecal contamination sources in Lake Montauk on Long Island, New York

The U.S. Geological Survey worked in cooperation with the Concerned Citizens of Montauk and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation to assess the potential sources of fecal contamination entering Lake Montauk, an artificial embayment on the tip of the southern fork of Suffolk County, Long Island, New York. Water samples are routinely collected by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation in the harbor and analyzed for fecal coliform bacteria, an indicator of fecal contamination, to determine the need for closure of shellfish beds for harvest and consumption. Fecal coliform and other bacteria are an indicator of the potential presence of pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria. However, indicator bacteria alone cannot determine the biological or geographical sources of contamination; therefore, microbial source tracking was implemented to determine various biological sources of contamination. In addition, information such as the location, weather and season, and surrounding land use where a sample was collected help determine the geographical source and conveyance of land-based water to the embayment. Overall, human and waterfowl markers were infrequently and sporadically present in source and receptor samples at low concentrations. By evaluating the microbial source tracking markers alongside fecal coliform data and land-use information, geographical sources of fecal contamination discharging from various source sites, such as culverts and ponds, were better differentiated. Analysis revealed that stormwater runoff and pond drainage were the most likely transport mechanisms for fecal contamination to Lake Montauk. When considering Lake Montauk as a whole, the highest frequency of fecal coliform detections in source site samples was found to be under wet summer conditions, as evidenced by the high fecal coliform concentrations at the South Beach, Stepping Stones Pond, and Stepping Stones Pond Culvert sites (300, 220, and more than 16,000 most probable number per 100 milliliters, respectively). No point sources of fecal coliform contamination to Lake Montauk were identified; however, receptor site samples adjacent to marinas (Lake Montauk Inlet and Star Island North sites) had a high frequency of human marker detections but were associated with fecal coliform concentrations at or below the reporting limit. The absence of fecal coliform and human microbial source tracking markers in groundwater samples indicated that water from septic systems did not influence the lake during this study. Further, the sandy sediment sample collected at the South Beach site was negative for all microbial source tracking markers and is unlikely to contribute fecal coliform from the tested host organisms when resuspended in the water column through tidal shifts or boat activity.

New York↗

USGS2023

Assessing Escherichia coli and microbial source tracking markers in the Rio Grande in the South Valley, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 2020–21

The Rio Grande, in southern Albuquerque, New Mexico, is a Clean Water Act Section 303(d) Category 5 impaired reach for Escherichia coli ( E. coli ). The reach is 5 miles in length, extending from Tijeras Arroyo south to the Isleta Pueblo boundary. An evaluation of E. coli and microbial source tracking markers (human-, canine-, and waterfowl-specific sources) was conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey to determine the extent and source of fecal bacteria within the impaired reach of the Rio Grande, primarily during the dry season (November through June) in 2020 and 2021. Samples were collected in the river cross section at three locations within each site and collected during both the dry season and the wet season, thereby providing data over a range of flow conditions to better understand the extent and source of fecal bacteria. Because fecal microorganisms may readily attach to sediments, riverbed material samples were also collected. During the dry season, E. coli concentrations in water were primarily detected below the New Mexico Surface Water Quality Standard of 410 colony forming units per 100 milliliters and mostly human and canine sources were detected. However, approximately 40 percent of the water samples exceeded the Isleta Pueblo water quality standard of 88 colony forming units per 100 milliliters. E. coli concentrations in bed material were detected at low concentrations, and the bed material was a sandy substrate, with little fine-grained material, a suitable habitat that would allow for bacterial growth during the dry season. Significant spatial and temporal differences, where p-values were less than 0.05, were found in water-quality samples for E. coli (seasonal) and the human tracker concentrations (between sites and within a cross section of a site). Given the lack of correlation between discharge and E. coli concentration and the human marker being most prevalent in the study area, the sources of E. coli in the dry season are likely nonpoint sources. The results from this study will help decision makers determine the efficacy of their best management practices and guide new practices to improve water quality in the reach.

New Mexico↗

USGS2023

Floodwater drainage assessment of Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, 2020–22

Offutt Air Force Base, south of Omaha, Nebraska, experienced major flooding during the March 2019 flood event because of the proximity of the base to the confluence of the Missouri River and nearby tributaries, which exceeded flood stages. Postflood, standing water remained through much of the year, attracting waterfowl and other birds and posing a major safety risk to aircraft. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the U.S. Air Force, began a study in 2020 to describe the hydrologic processes that affect the persistence of standing water on Offutt Air Force Base. Existing site data, reviewed in concert with groundwater and surface-water elevation data collected for the study, indicate varying hydrologic responses between two areas of concern (AOCs), which can be linked to differences in subsurface geology and changes in flows of the Missouri River. An inundation map indicated that standing water would be present throughout Papillion Creek Ditch in AOC 1 and would extend upstream to AOC 2 during flow events greater than 771 cubic feet per second. A U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Hydrologic Engineering Center-River Analysis System model and a flow-duration analysis were used to infer that many of the surface-water drainage problems experienced in 2019 were the result of backwater conditions caused by higher streamflows in the Missouri River.

Nebraska↗

USGS2025

Microbial source tracking in Cedar and Crane Creeks near Curtice, Ohio, 2021

Elevated concentrations of Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) bacteria and signs of sewage lead to impairment of Cedar and Crane Creeks near the town of Curtice, Ohio. In 2021, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, collected samples and analyzed them for concentrations of E. coli and microbial source tracking (MST) markers to help characterize the locations and sources of fecal contamination and better inform potential remediation strategies. The study included a total of 118 samples collected at 12 sites (6 on Cedar Creek and 6 on Crane Creek) from May to September 2021 during wet and dry weather conditions. All samples were analyzed for E. coli concentrations, and human and canine-associated MST markers. A subset of samples was analyzed for MST markers associated with swine, ruminant, cattle, horse, waterfowl, and poultry. Human-origin fecal contamination was found at all sites sampled in this study and concentrations of the human-associated MST marker HF183/BacR287 were significantly correlated with E. coli concentrations. The HF183/BacR287 marker was detected in 114 of 118 samples and the detection frequency in samples at each site ranged from 90 to 100 percent. E. coli concentrations exceeded the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency’s regulatory statistical threshold (410 most probable number of E. coli per 100 milliliters) in 91 percent of samples. These findings verified that Cedar and Crane Creeks are impaired by bacteria, and the HF183/BacR287 marker results support that human-origin fecal contamination is the dominant contributor to that impairment. The canine-associated MST marker BacCan was also prevalent in collected samples (detected in 112 of 118 samples); however, BacCan can also be detected in human waste, so it is not feasible to ascertain whether canine feces is a source of contamination in these watersheds. Human fecal contamination was nearly uniform among sites, but the Martin Williston Road ditch effluent site along Crane Creek had a significantly higher median HF183/BacR287 concentration than the other Crane Creek sites. Results indicate that the Martin Williston Road ditch is a potential source of human-origin fecal contamination to Crane Creek. There is likely additional human fecal contamination upstream from the study area.

Ohio↗

USGS2011

Monitoring habitat restoration projects: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Pacific Region Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program and Coastal Program Protocol

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's (FWS) Pacific Region (Region 1) includes more than 158 million acres (almost 247,000 square miles) of land base in Idaho, Oregon, Washington, Hawai`i, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa, Guam, the Republic of Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Region 1 is ecologically diverse with landscapes that range from coral reefs, broadleaf tropical forests, and tropical savannahs in the Pacific Islands, to glacial streams and lakes, lush old-growth rainforests, inland fjords, and coastal shoreline in the Pacific Northwest, to the forested mountains, shrub-steppe desert, and native grasslands in the Inland Northwest. Similarly, the people of the different landscapes perceive, value, and manage their natural resources in ways unique to their respective regions and cultures. The Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program (Partners Program) and Coastal Program work with a variety of partners in Region 1 including individual landowners, watershed councils, land trusts, Soil and Water Conservation Districts, non-governmental organizations, Tribal governments, Native Hawaiian organizations, and local, State, and Federal agencies. The Partners Program is the FWS's vanguard for working with private landowners to voluntarily restore and conserve fish and wildlife habitat. Using non-regulatory incentives, the Partners Program engages willing partners to conserve and protect valuable fish and wildlife habitat on their property and in their communities. This is accomplished by providing the funding support and technical and planning tools needed to make on-the-ground conservation affordable, feasible, and effective. The primary goals of the Pacific Region Partners Program are to: Promote citizen and community-based stewardship efforts for fish and wildlife conservation Contribute to the recovery of at-risk species, Protect the environmental integrity of the National Wildlife Refuges, Contribute to the implementation of the State Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategies, and Help achieve the objectives of the National Fish Habitat Partnerships and regionally based bird conservation plans (for example, North American Waterfowl Management Plan, U.S. Pacific Island Shorebird Conservation Plans, Intermountain West Regional Shorebird Plan, etc.). The Partners Program accomplishes these priorities by: Developing and maintaining strong partnerships, and delivering on-the-ground habitat restoration projects designed to reestablish habitat function and restore natural processes; Addressing key habitat limiting factors for declining species; Providing corridors for wildlife and decrease impediments to native fish and wildlife migration; and Enhancing native plant communities by reducing invasive species and improving native species composition. The Coastal Program is a voluntary fish and wildlife conservation program that focuses on watershed-scale, long-term collaborative resource planning and on-the-ground restoration projects in high-priority coastal areas. The Coastal Program conducts planning and restoration work on private, State, and Federal lands, and partnerships with other agencies-Native American Tribes, citizens, and organizations are emphasized. Coastal Program goals include restoring and protecting coastal habitat, providing technical and cost-sharing assistance where appropriate, supporting community-based restoration, collecting and developing information on the status of and threats to fish and wildlife, and using outreach to promote stewardship of coastal resources. The diversity of habitats and partners in Region 1 present many opportunities for conducting restoration projects. Faced with this abundance of opportunity, the Partners Program and Coastal Program must ensure that limited staffing and project dollars are allocated to benefit the highest priority resources and achieve the highest quality results for Federal trust species. In 2007, the Partners Program and Coastal Program developed a Strategic Plan to guide program operations and more efficiently conserve habitat by focusing partnership building and habitat improvement actions within 35 Partners Program Focus Areas and 9 Coastal Program Focus Areas (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010). The Strategic Plan also contains four other goals: broaden and strengthen partnerships; improve information sharing and communications; enhance workforce; and increase accountability to ensure that program resources are used efficiently and effectively. This protocol will help achieve all goals of the Strategic Plan.

Techniques and Methods↗

USGS2001

Estimates of evapotranspiration from the Ruby Lake National Wildlife Refuge area, Ruby Valley, northeastern Nevada, May 1999–October 2000

The Ruby Lake National Wildlife Refuge in Ruby Valley, Nevada, contains the largest area of perennial wetlands in northeastern Nevada and provides habitat to a large number of migratory and nesting waterfowl. The long-term preservation of the refuge depends on the availability of sufficient water to maintain optimal habitat conditions. In the Ruby Valley water budget, evapotranspiration (ET) from the refuge is one of the largest components of natural outflow. To help determine the amount of inflow needed to maintain wetland habitat, estimates of ET for May 1999 through October 2000 were made at major habitats throughout the refuge. The Bowen-ratio method was used to estimate daily ET at four sites: over open water, in a moderate-to-dense cover of bulrush marsh, in a moderate cover of mixed phreatophytic shrubs, and in a desert-shrub upland. The eddy-correlation method was used to estimate daily ET for periods of 2 to 12 weeks at a meadow site and at four sites in a sparse-to-moderate cover of phreatophytic shrubs. Daily ET rates ranged from less than 0.010 inch per day at all of the sites to a maximum of 0.464 inch per day at the open-water site. Average daily ET rates estimated for open water and a bulrush marsh were about four to five times greater than in areas of mixed phreatophytic shrubs, where the depth to ground water is less than 5 feet. Based on the seasonal distribution of major habitats in the refuge and on winter and summer ET rates, an estimated total of about 89,000 acre-feet of water was consumed by ET during October 1999-September 2000 (2000 water year). Of this total, about 49,800 acre-feet was consumed by ET in areas of open water and bulrush marsh.

Nevada↗

USGS2001

Water quality and occurrence of methyl-tert butyl ether (MTBE) and other fuel related compounds in lakes and ground water at lakeside communities in Sussex and Morris Counties, New Jersey, 1998-1999

Densely populated communities surround many of the larger lakes in northwestern New Jersey. These communities derive most of their water supply from wells. The lakes can be navigated by gasoline-powered watercraft, can be in various stages of eutrophication, may contain pathogens associated with bathing and waterfowl, and are periodically subjected to chemical applications to control aquatic plant growth. Another feature that contributes to water-quality concerns in lakeside communities is the widespread use of septic tanks. Concentrations of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), a gasoline oxygenate, in samples from Cranberry Lake and Lake Lackawanna ranged from 20 to 30 ug/L (micrograms per liter) and 5 to 14 ug/L during the summers of 1998 and 1999, respectively. These levels were persistent throughout the depth of the lakes when mixing conditions were present. MTBE concentrations in samples from the top 20 feet of Lake Hopatcong during summer 1999 were about 10 ug/L and about 2 to 3 ug/L in samples below 20 feet. The source of the MTBE in the lakes was determined to be gasoline-powered watercraft. Other constituents of gasoline--tertiary amyl methyl ether (TAME) and benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX)--were detected in the lakes but at much lower concentrations than MTBE. Ambient ground-water quality at Cranberry Lake and Lake Lackawanna appears to be affected by the use of gasoline-powered watercraft. MTBE was detected in water samples from 13 of the 14 wells sampled at Cranberry Lake in fall 1998 and summer 1999. The wells were selected to monitor ambient ground-water quality and had no history of contamination. In ground-water samples collected during fall 1998, MTBE concentrations ranged from 0.12 to 19.8 ug/L, and the median concentration was 0.43 ug/L. In samples from summer 1999, MTBE concentrations ranged from 0.14 to 13.2 ug/L, and the median concentration was 0.38 ug/L. MTBE was detected in samples from four of the five wells at Lake Lackawanna in summer 1999;concentrations ranged from 0.05 to 0.19 ug/L. Lake/ground water interaction is a feasible explanation for the nearly ubiquitous presence of MTBE in ground water. The movement of water from lakes to wells is feasible because many static water levels and essentially all pumped water levels in the wells were below lake levels. Furthermore, diatom fragments were present in samples from the wells. Ambient ground water at Cranberry Lake also may be affected by septic-tank effluent, as indicated by the relation among concentrations of nitrate, boron, and chloroform. This result indicates potential vulnerability of the water supply to contamination by other chemicals and pathogens. Radon in ambient ground water is a concern throughout northern New Jersey. In particular, the median radon concentrations in ground-water samples collected from 14 wells at Cranberry Lake in 1998 and 1999 were 1,282 and 1,046 pCi/L, respectively. The median radon concentration in five ground-water samples collected at Lake Lackawanna in 1999 was 340 pCi/L. Although these values exceed regulatory levels, they are not high relative to radon concentrations measured in northwestern New Jersey. Eight wells in a neighborhood of Cranberry Lake with known MTBE contamination were sampled by the U.S. Geological Survey in summer 1998. MTBE was detected at concentrations greater than or equal to 40 ug/L in five of the wells. Concentrations of TAME, another gasoline oxygenate, were highly correlated with concentrations of MTBE; MTBE concentrations were about 10 times the TAME concentrations. In all samples, however, the concentrations of the BTEX compounds were less than 0.05 ug/L, and the sample from the most highly contaminated well, where the MTBE concentration was 900 ug/L, had no detectable BTEX.

New Jersey↗

USGS1980

Hydrologic analysis of the proposed Badger-Beaver Creeks artificial-recharge project: Morgan County, Colorado

A hydrologic analysis of the proposed Badger-Beaver Creeks artificial-recharge project in Morgan County, Colo., was made with the aid of three digital computer models: A canal-distribution model, a ground-water flow model, and a stream-aquifer model. Statistical summaries of probable diversions from the South Platte River based on a 27-year period of historical flows indicate that an average-annual diversion of 96,000 acre-feet and a median-annual diversion of 43,000 acre-feet would be available. Diversions would sustain water in ponds for waterfowl habitat for an average of about five months per year, with a miximum pond surface area of about 300 acres with the median diversions and a maximum pond surface area of about 1,250 acres at least one-half of the years with the historic diversions. If the annual diversion were 43,000 acre-feet, recharge to the two alluvial aquifers would raise water levels sufficiently to create flowing streams in the channels of Beaver and Badger Creeks while allowing an increase in current ground-water pumping. The only area of significant waterlogging would be along the proposed delivery canal on the west edge of Badger Creek valley. If the total water available were diverted, the aquifer system could not transmit the water fast enough to the irrigation areas to avoid considerable waterlogging in the recharge areas. The impact of the proposed project on the South Platte River basin would be minimal once the ground-water system attained steady-state conditions, but that may take decades with a uniform diversion of the 43,000 acre-feet annually.

Colorado↗

USGS1986

Water-quality variability in four reservoirs in Phillips and Valley Counties, Montana, May through August 1981

Four reservoirs in Phillips and Valley Counties were studied from May to August, 1981 (1) to describe the variation in water quality that occurs from late spring (May) to late summer (August) and during 24-hrs in late summer and (2) to describe possible causes for the variation. All the reservoirs had distinct thermal gradients but lacked true stratification as a result of circulation induced by wind. Such mixing helps prevent oxygen depletion in bottom waters during the summer. The smallest dissolved-oxygen concentrations occurred in the near-bottom water of the reservoirs and during the night. Nighttime dissolved-oxygen concentrations in reservoirs 19 and 24 were much less than in reservoirs 1 and 9. Similar trends occurred with pH. Most chemical constituents in the water generally became more concentrated from May to August because of continuous water losses from evapotranspiration. This was noted by increase in the concentration of major dissolved constituents and by increase in specific conductance. All the reservoirs contained similar types of planktonic organisms, but in different proportions. Most of the fecal bacteria existing in the reservoirs presumably originated from livestock and waterfowl waste. (USGS)

Montana↗