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At least 1,171 records · Page 65Linked to original sources

USGS2012

Geochemistry of thermal waters in Long Valley, Mono County, California

Thermal springs and wells in Long Valley, California, issue sodium bicarbonate‐chloride waters containing 1000–1420 mg/l of dissolved solids. Thermal waters of sodium bicarbonate‐chloride composition are usually associated with hot‐water reservoirs. Chloride concentrations and stable isotope data indicate that the thermal waters have had varied histories. All of the thermal springs issue a mixture of fluid from the thermal reservoir and less saline, cooler water from one or more shallow aquifers. The composition of springs in Hot Creek Gorge may have been further altered by minor subsurface boiling. Thermal springs between Hot Creek and Lake Crowley issue mixtures of fresh and thermal waters which have lost heat by conductive cooling and changed composition by reaction with rock in the shallow aquifer. The silica content of water from Magma Richie 5 and mixing calculations based on the concentrations of silica in thermal waters collected from springs in Hot Creek Gorge and along Little Hot Creek indicate a temperature of at least 200°C in the thermal reservoir. The sodium‐potassium‐calcium geothermometer yields a reservoir temperature estimate near 200°C for most of the thermal springs. If geothermal energy is developed in Long Valley, the high concentrations of arsenic (up to 2.2 mg/l), boron (up to 15 mg/l), and total dissolved solids in the thermal fluids will make it necessary to isolate the effluent of production wells from the freshwater system.

California↗

USGS1967

Water-resources of the Antelope Valley-East Kern Water Agency area, California

The Antelope Valley-East Kern Water Agency (AVEK) area, most of which is within the Mojave Desert region of southern California, lacks adequate water resources to sustain the existing rate of ground-water pumpage for irrigation, industrial, and domestic use. However, by 1972 the California Aqueduct, a part of the California Water Plan, will be completed and will begin to convey water from northern California into the area. The chief economic pursuits in the area are irrigated agriculture and poultry production. At present, the major industries are related to national defense and mining. In the future, industry will increase and probably become the major economic activity. The Mojave Desert region, part of which lies within the AVEK area, is characterized by fault-block mountains and fault-block basins. The Tehachapi and San Gabriel Mountains are the major bordering fault blocks. The adjacent lowland areas of Antelope and Fremont Valleys have been depressed by movements along major faults. There are two major ground-water basins in the AVEK area: Antelope Valley and Fremont Valley basins. Each large basin is divided by faults or bodies of consolidated rock into several groundwater subunits.

California↗

USGS1975

Evaluation of LANDSAT-2 (ERTS) images applied to geologic structures and mineral resources of South America: Type II progress report for period March 14, 1975-June 30, 1975

The author has identified the following significant results. Work with the Image 100 clearly demonstrates that radiance values of LANDSAT data can be used for correlation of geologic formations across international boundaries. The Totora Formation of the Corocoro Group of Tertiary age was traced from known outcrops near Tiahuanaco, Bolivia, along the south side of Lake Titicaca westward into Peru where the same rocks are considered to be Cretaceous in age. This inconsistency suggests: (1) that a review of this formation is needed by joint geological surveys of both countries to determine similarities, differences, and the true age; (2) that recognition of the extension of the copper-bearing Totora Formation of Bolivia into Peru may provide Peru with a new target for exploration. Equal radiance maps made by use of the Image 100 system show as many as eight different units within salar deposits (salt flats) of the Bolivian Altiplano. Standard film processed images show them as nearly uniform areas of white because of lack of dynamic range in film products. The Image 100 system, therefore, appears to be of great assistance in subdividing the salt flats on the basis of moisture distribution, surface roughness, and distribution of windblown materials. Field work is needed to determine these relationships to mineral composition and distribution. Images representing seasonal changes should also improve the accuracy of such maps. Radiance values of alteration zones related to the occurrence of porphyry copper ores were measured at the San Juan del Abra deposit of northern Chile using the Image 100 system. The extent to which these same values may be used to detect similar alteration zones in other areas has not yet been tested.

Bolivian Altiplano, Lake Titicaca↗

USGS2004

Stratiform barite deposits in the Roberts Mountains allochthon, Nevada: A review of potential analogs in modern sea-floor environments

The United States is a net importer of barite, a critical mineral for the oil and gas industry; more than 80 percent of current domestic consumption of barite is imported from China. Nearly all of the domestic production of barite comes from stratiform deposits in Nevada. The 'modern analogs' approach adopted in this review can contribute to improving deposit models and the long-term resource picture in the United States. Massive barite deposits in Nevada are interlayered with deep-water siliceous sedimentary strata of Paleozoic age within the Roberts Mountains Allochthon. Although the barite deposits formed along the long-lived, tectonically active margin of western North America before the Antler orogeny, uncertainty still exists regarding key aspects of their genesis, especially with respect to tectonic setting and depositional processes. Proposed tectonic settings include a continental slope adjacent to an ocean basin, and a rifted basin formed on continental crust. A margin dominated by other stress configurations and strike-slip faulting may also have been present during the Paleozoic. Hypotheses for the genesis of sediment-hosted, stratiform barite deposits in Nevada can be grouped into two categories: (1) a synsedimentary hydrothermal model and (2) an ocean-circulation/productivity-zone model. Both models include a stage involving bacterial reduction of seawater sulfate. Disseminated, diagenetic, and hydrothermal barite deposits are widespread features of the modern ocean. In the Pacific Ocean, disseminated barite deposits (max 9 weight percent BaSO4) are forming below high-productivity zones (for example, in equatorial belts) and on the flanks of ocean ridges (as fallout of 'black smoker' particles). Massive barite deposits of diagenetic (in the subsea floor and at cold seeps) and hydrothermal origins are present in several sediment-covered tectonic settings, including ocean ridges (Escanaba Trough and Guaymas Basin), oceanic transform faults (Blanco Fracture Zone), marginal basins (Sea of Okhotsk), convergent margins (Peru, Oregon, Alaska), and transform margins (California Continental Borderland). Both hydrothermal and diagenetic barite deposits may be present in some environments (for example, the California California Borderland). On the basis of a consideration of tectonic settings and a comparison of deposit attributes (associated rock types, size, structure), mineralogy (BaSO4 content, SiO2 content), and geochemistry (S- and Sr-isotopic ratios) for modern and ancient massive barite deposits, cold seeps along transform margins (or, possibly, marginal basins) represent the most promising present-day metallogenetic analogs for stratiform barite. Hydrothermal systems can also produce high-grade barite, but the ubiquity of associated sulfide mineralization on the modern sea floor (and the paucity of sulfides in Nevada deposits) is problematic. On the basis of data from modern barite deposits, the presence of vent-specific faunas (tubeworms) and the variation in d34S values for barite (related to bacterial reduction of seawater sulfate) may not permit discrimination between a diagenetic or hydrothermal origin for ancient barite deposits.

Nevada↗

USGS2011

Natural gas production and anomalous geothermal gradients of the deep Tuscaloosa Formation

For the largest producing natural gas fields in the onshore Gulf of Mexico Basin, the relation between temperature versus depth was investigated. Prolific natural gas reservoirs with the highest temperatures were found in the Upper Cretaceous downdip Tuscaloosa trend in Louisiana. Temperature and production trends from the deepest field, Judge Digby field, in Pointe Coupe Parish, Louisiana, were investigated to characterize the environment of natural gas in the downdip Tuscaloosa trend. The average production depth in the Judge Digby field is approximately 22,000 ft. Temperatures as high as 400 degrees F are typically found at depth in Judge Digby field and are anomalously low when compared to temperature trends extrapolated to similar depths regionally. At 22,000 ft, the minimum and maximum temperatures for all reservoirs in Gulf Coast producing gas fields are 330 and 550 degrees F, respectively; the average temperature is 430 degrees F. The relatively depressed geothermal gradients in the Judge Digby field may be due to high rates of sediment preservation, which may have delayed the thermal equilibration of the sediment package with respect to the surrounding rock. Analyzing burial history and thermal maturation indicates that the deep Tuscaloosa trend in the Judge Digby field is currently in the gas generation window. Using temperature trends as an exploration tool may have important implications for undiscovered hydrocarbons at greater depths in currently producing reservoirs, and for settings that are geologically analogous to the Judge Digby fiel

Open-File Report↗

USGS2016

Rare earth element deposits in China

China is the world’s leading rare earth element (REE) producer and hosts a variety of deposit types. Carbonatite- related REE deposits, the most significant deposit type, include two giant deposits presently being mined in China, Bayan Obo and Maoniuping, the first and third largest deposits of this type in the world, respectively. The carbonatite-related deposits host the majority of China’s REE resource and are the primary supplier of the world’s light REE. The REE-bearing clay deposits, or ion adsorption-type deposits, are second in importance and are the main source in China for heavy REE resources. Other REE resources include those within monazite or xenotime placers, beach placers, alkaline granites, pegmatites, and hydrothermal veins, as well as some additional deposit types in which REE are recovered as by-products. Carbonatite-related REE deposits in China occur along craton margins, both in rifts (e.g., Bayan Obo) and in reactivated transpressional margins (e.g., Maoniuping). They comprise those along the northern, eastern, and southern margins of the North China block, and along the western margin of the Yangtze block. Major structural features along the craton margins provide first-order controls for REE-related Proterozoic to Cenozoic carbonatite alkaline complexes; these are emplaced in continental margin rifts or strike-slip faults. The ion adsorption-type REE deposits, mainly situated in the South China block, are genetically linked to the weathering of granite and, less commonly, volcanic rocks and lamprophyres. Indosinian (early Mesozoic) and Yanshanian (late Mesozoic) granites are the most important parent rocks for these REE deposits, although Caledonian (early Paleozoic) granites are also of local importance. The primary REE enrichment is hosted in various mineral phases in the igneous rocks and, during the weathering process, the REE are released and adsorbed by clay minerals in the weathering profile. Currently, these REE-rich clays are primarily mined from open-pit operations in southern China. The complex geologic evolution of China’s Precambrian blocks, particularly the long-term subduction of ocean crust below the North and South China blocks, enabled recycling of REE-rich pelagic sediments into mantle lithosphere. This resulted in the REE-enriched nature of the mantle below the Precambrian cratons, which were reactivated and thus essentially decratonized during various tectonic episodes throughout the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic. Deep fault zones within and along the edges of the blocks, including continental rifts and strike-slip faults, provided pathways for upwelling of mantle material.

Book chapter↗

USGS1974

New activities at the U.S. Geological Survey

As the Nation's principal source of information about the configuration of the land surface, the composition and structure of the rocks at and beneath the surface, the distribution and character of its energy, mineral, and water resources, and the nature of natural geologic processes, the U. S. Geological Survey focuses its work on some of the Nation's most critical problems. As the Survey tackles new problems with new techniques, it is fully aware of the resource needs and environmental pressures of an expanding economy and growing population.

General Information Product↗

USGS2025

Characteristics of volcanic ash reveal changes in fragmentation and eruption dynamics at Poás volcano, Costa Rica, 2016–2019

Determining whether fresh magma has reached the surface during a volcanic eruption can provide important information for forecasts of future activity, especially in the early stages of an eruption. However, identifying fresh, juvenile pyroclasts in tephra fall deposits can be challenging and inconclusive. We studied the products of explosions at Poás volcano, Costa Rica, in 2016–2019, a period during which the volcano transitioned from a pressurized, hydrothermally sealed state to an open conduit with increased degassing to the atmosphere. The activity consisted of semi-continuous explosions producing <500-m-high plumes, with the exception of explosions on April 14 and 22, 2017, that produced 4-km-high plumes. We analyzed the grain size distribution, componentry, and particle density of the products of twenty explosions, and collected groundmass glass composition on juvenile particles for three of them. Our work demonstrates varying degrees of magma involvement with the hydrothermal system through time, with juvenile material representing a wide range of abundance (~10–70 vol.%) in deposits of individual explosions. Before early April 2017, we infer that small phreatomagmatic explosions were triggered by contact between magmatic fluids and/or magma and the hydrothermal system, based on the presence of abundant hydrothermal fragments and minor juvenile magma. Concurrent with decreasing hydrothermal component in the deposits, explosions in April–May 2017 eroded the walls of the shallow plumbing system, evidenced by an increase in wall-rock lithics in the deposits. These changes coincided with drying of the crater lake, leading to several magmatic explosions in April-September 2017, whose juvenile-rich deposits are consistent with primary fragmentation of fresh magma in the conduit. The eruptive activity changed after this magmatic phase, and in 2019, small explosions mostly recycled the heterogeneous deposits of previous events, producing fine material with high proportions of recycled particles. All explosions from 2016–2019 remobilized already-emplaced magma from the 1953–1955 eruptive period, although distinct glass compositions between explosions suggest difference in crystallization or they tapped different portions of this magma body. Our work sheds light on the eruption dynamics and shallow plumbing system of this persistently active volcano and provides a case study for understanding the variable efficiency of phreatomagmatic fragmentation.

Poás volcano↗

USGS2022

U.S. Geological Survey Core Research Center: A gateway to subsurface discovery for geoscience research

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) operates the Core Research Center (CRC) in Denver, Colorado, USA, a public access repository of rock cores from over 9800 wells and drill cuttings from over 53 000 wells, primarily from states in or adjacent to the Rocky Mountain Region. Annually, approximately 1400 visitors use the collection for traditional and innovative research. The CRC has an online, searchable database which includes downloadable core photos, analytical data, and thin-section images. When visitors sample for analyses, the results must be returned to the CRC for public dissemination providing immediate, free access to users while sparing the finite, irreplaceable collection from redundant testing. A representative quantity of every core depth is preserved in perpetuity. Studies on CRC materials, paired with new extraction methods, have unlocked new productive deposits. Materials drilled and curated decades ago remain in high demand while materials receiving little attention today may be crucial for future research. The collection provides immediate, inexpensive access to subsurface materials at a fraction of the cost of new drilling, sparing money, time and environmental impacts.

Geological Society, London, Special Publications↗

USGS2014

Distal facies variability within the Upper Triassic part of the Otuk Formation in northern Alaska

The Triassic-Jurassic Otuk Formation is a potentially important source rock in allochthonous structural positions in the northern foothills of the Brooks Range in the North Slope of Alaska. This study focuses on three localities of the Upper Triassic (Norian) limestone member, which form a present-day, 110-km-long, east-west transect in the central Brooks Range. All three sections are within the structurally lowest Endicott Mountain allochthon and are interpreted to have been deposited along a marine outer shelf with a ramp geometry. The uppermost limestone member of the Otuk was chosen for this study in order to better understand lateral and vertical variability within carbonate source rocks, to aid prediction of organic richness, and ultimately, to evaluate the potential for these units to act as continuous (or unconventional) reservoirs. At each locality, 1 to 4 m sections of the limestone member were measured and sampled in detail to capture fine-scale features. Hand sample and thin section descriptions reveal four major microfacies in the study area, and one diagenetically recrystallized microfacies. Microfacies 1 and 2 are interpreted to represent redeposition of material by downslope transport, whereas microfacies 3 and 4 have high total organic carbon (TOC) values and are classified as primary depositional organofacies. Microfacies 3 is interpreted to have been deposited under primarily high productivity conditions, with high concentrations of radiolarian tests. Microfacies 4 was deposited under the lowest relative-oxygen conditions, but abundant thin bivalve shells indicate that the sediment-water interface was probably not anoxic. The Otuk Formation is interpreted to have been deposited outboard of a southwest-facing ramp margin, with the location of the three limestone outcrops likely in relatively close proximity during deposition. All three sections have evidence of transported material, implying that the Triassic Alaskan Basin was not a low-energy, deep-water setting, but rather a dynamic system with intermittent, yet significant, downslope flow. Upwelling played an important role in the small-scale vertical variability in microfacies. The zone of upwelling and resultant oxygen-minimum zone may have migrated across the ramp during fourth- or fifth-order sea-level changes.

Alaska↗

USGS2015

Hydrothermal, biogenic, and seawater components in metalliferous black shales of the Brooks Range, Alaska: Synsedimentary metal enrichment in a carbonate ramp setting

Trace element and Os isotope data for Lisburne Group metalliferous black shales of Middle Mississippian (early Chesterian) age in the Brooks Range of northern Alaska suggest that metals were sourced chiefly from local seawater (including biogenic detritus) but also from externally derived hydrothermal fluids. These black shales are interbedded with phosphorites and limestones in sequences 3 to 35 m thick; deposition occurred mainly on a carbonate ramp during intermittent upwelling under varying redox conditions, from suboxic to anoxic to sulfidic. Deposition of the black shales at ~335 Ma was broadly contemporaneous with sulfide mineralization in the Red Dog and Drenchwater Zn-Pb-Ag deposits, which formed in a distal marginal basin. Relative to the composition of average black shale, the metalliferous black shales ( n = 29) display large average enrichment factors (>10) for Zn (10.1), Cd (11.0), and Ag (20.1). Small enrichments (>2–<10) are shown by V, Cr, Ni, Cu, Mo, Pd, Pt, U, Se, Y, and all rare earth elements except Ce, Nd, and Sm. A detailed stratigraphic profile over 23 m in the Skimo Creek area (central Brooks Range) indicates that samples from at and near the top of the section, which accumulated during a period of major upwelling and is broadly correlative with the stratigraphic levels of the Red Dog and Drenchwater Zn-Pb-Ag deposits, have the highest Zn/TOC (total organic carbon), Cu/TOC, and Tl/TOC ratios for calculated marine fractions (no detrital component) of these three metals. Average authigenic (detrital-free) contents of Mo, V, U, Ni, Cu, Cd, Pb, Ge, Re, Se, As, Sb, Tl, Pd, and Au show enrichment factors of 4.3 × 10 3 to 1.2 × 10 6 relative to modern seawater. Such moderate enrichments, which are common in other metalliferous black shales, suggest wholly marine sources (seawater and biogenic material) for these metals, given similar trends for enrichment factors in organic-rich sediments of modern upwelling zones on the Namibian, Peruvian, and Chilean shelves. The largest enrichment factors for Zn and Ag are much higher (1.4 × 10 7 and 2.9 × 10 7 , respectively), consistent with an appreciable hydrothermal component. Other metals such as Cu, Pb, and Tl that are concentrated in several black shale samples, and are locally abundant in the Red Dog and Drenchwater Zn-Pb-Ag deposits, may have a partly hydrothermal origin but this cannot be fully established with the available data. Enrichments in Cr (up to 7.8 × 10 6 ) are attributed to marine and not hydrothermal processes. The presence in some samples of large enrichments in Eu (up to 6.1 × 10 7 ) relative to modern seawater and of small positive Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* up to 1.12) are considered unrelated to hydrothermal activity, instead being linked to early diagenetic processes within sulfidic pore fluids. Initial Os isotope ratios ( 187 Os/ 188 Os) calculated for a paleontologically based depositional age of 335 Ma reveal moderately unradiogenic values of 0.24 to 0.88 for four samples of metalliferous black shale. A proxy for the ratio of coeval early Chesterian seawater is provided by initial ( 187 Os/ 188 Os) 335 Ma ratios of four unaltered black shales of the coeval Kuna Formation that average 1.08, nearly identical to the initial ratio of 1.06 for modern seawater. Evaluation of possible sources of unradiogenic Os in the metalliferous black shales suggests that the most likely source was mafic igneous rocks that were leached by externally derived hydrothermal fluids. This unradiogenic Os is interpreted to have been leached by deeply circulating hydrothermal fluids in the Kuna basin, followed by venting of the fluids into overlying seawater. We propose that metal-bearing hydrothermal fluids that formed Zn-Pb-Ag deposits such as Red Dog or Drenchwater vented into seawater in a marginal basin, were carried by upwelling currents onto the margins of a shallow-water carbonate platform, and were then deposited in organic-rich muds, together with seawater- and biogenically derived components, by syngenetic sedimentary processes. Metal concentration in the black shales was promoted by high biologic productivity, sorption onto organic matter, diffusion across redox boundaries, a low sedimentation rate, and availability of H 2 S in bottom waters and pore fluids.

Alaska↗

USGS2011

Development of industrial minerals in Colorado

Technology and engineering have helped make mining safer and cleaner for both humans and the environment. Inevitably, mineral development entails costs as well as benefits. Developing a mine is an environmental, engineering, and planning challenge that must conform to many Federal, State, and local regulations. Community collaboration, creative design, and best management practices of sustainability and biodiversity can be positive indicators for the mining industry. A better understanding of aesthetics, culture, economics, geology, climate, vegetation and wildlife, topography, historical significance, and regional land planning is important in resolving land-use issues and managing mineral resources wisely. Ultimately, the consuming public makes choices about product use (including water, food, highways, housing, and thousands of other items) that influence operations of the mineral industry. Land planners, resource managers, earth scientists, designers, and public groups have a responsibility to consider sound scientific information, society's needs, and community appeals in making smart decisions concerning resource use and how complex landscapes should change. An effort to provide comprehensive geosciences data for land management agencies in central Colorado was undertaken in 2003 by scientists of the U.S. Geological Survey and the Colorado Geological Survey. This effort, the Central Colorado Assessment Project, addressed a variety of land-use issues: an understanding of the availability of industrial and metallic rocks and minerals, the geochemical and environmental effects of historic mining activity on surface water and groundwater, and the geologic controls on the availability and quality of groundwater. The USDA Forest Service and other land management agencies have the opportunity to contribute to the sustainable management of natural aggregate and other mineral resources through the identification and selective development of mineral resources and the reclamation of mines on lands that they administer. The information in this Circular will help them carry out that task.

Colorado↗

USGS2001

Geologic map and database of the Roseburg 30' x 60' quadrangle, Douglas and Coos Counties, Oregon

The Roseburg 30' x 60' Quadrangle covers the southeastern margin of the Oregon Coast Range and its tectonic boundary with Mesozoic terranes of the Klamath Mountains (see figures 1 and 2 in pamphlet, also shown on map sheet). The geologic framework of the Roseburg area was established by the pioneering work of Diller (1898), Wells and Peck, (1961) and Ewart Baldwin (1974) and his students (see figure 3 in pamphlet, also shown on map sheet). Baldwin and his students focussed on the history of the Eocene Tyee basin, where the sediments lap across the tectonic boundary with the Mesozoic terranes and record the accretion of the Coast Range basement to the continent. Others have examined the sedimentary fill of the Tyee basin in detail, recognizing the deep marine turbidite facies of the Tyee Formation (Snavely and others, 1964) and proposing several models for the Eocene evolution of the forearc basin (Heller and Ryberg, 1983; Chan and Dott, 1983; Heller and Dickinson, 1985; Molenaar, 1985; see Ryu and others, 1992 for a comprehensive summary). Along the eastern margin of the quadrangle, both the Tyee basin and the Klamath terranes are overlain by Eocene volcanic rocks of the Western Cascade arc (Walker and MacLeod, 1991). The thick Eocene sedimentary sequence of the Tyee basin has significant oil and gas potential (Armentrout and Suek, 1985; Gautier and others, 1993; Ryu and others, 1996). Although 13 deep test wells have been drilled in the Roseburg quadrangle (see figure 2 and table 1 in pamphlet, also shown on map sheet), exploration to date has been hampered by an incomplete understanding of the basinï¿½s tectonic setting and evolution. In response, the Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries (DOGAMI) initiated a five year assessment of the oil and gas potential of the Tyee basin. This map is a product of a cooperative effort by the U. S. Geological Survey, Oregon State University, and DOGAMI to systematically map the sedimentary facies and structure of the Tyee basin. New geologic mapping of twenty-eight 7.5' quadrangles is summarized on the map (see figure 3, also shown on map sheet), and the digital database contains geologic information suitable for both 1:100K and 1:24K scale analysis. DOGAMI has published a compilation and synthesis of previous mapping (Niem and Niem, 1990), a basin-wide sequence stratigraphic model and correlations (Ryu and others, 1992), and a report on the oil and gas potential (Ryu and others, 1996). Readers interested in the oil and gas potential of the Roseburg quadrangle should use the map in combination with Ryu and others (1996) to address specific stratigraphic units and structural plays. Stratigraphic terminology for the Tyee basin adopts the type sections, formation names, and framework of Ryu and others (1992, 1996), which were developed concurrently with the mapping and are recognized throughout the basin. For detailed discussion of nomenclature, type sections, lithology, thickness and distribution, age, contact relationships, and depositional environment of stratigraphic units, the reader is referred to Ryu and others (1992). In this report we focus on the spatial, temporal, and structural relationships between units revealed by geologic mapping. Map unit ages (see figure 4 in pamphlet, also shown on map sheeet) are adjusted slightly from Ryu and others (1992, 1996) to fit new coccolith age determinations (D. Bukry, cited in pamphlet), paleomagnetic polarity data (Simpson, 1977 and new data cited in pamphlet), and the time scale of Berggren and others (1995).

Oregon↗

USGS2019

Airborne radiometric maps of Mountain Pass, California

Geophysical investigations of Mountain Pass and vicinity were begun as part of an effort to study regional crustal structures as an aid to understanding the geologic framework and mineral resources of the eastern Mojave Desert. The study area encompasses Mountain Pass, host to one of the world’s largest rare earth element carbonatite deposits. The deposit is found along a north-northwest-trending, fault-bounded block that extends along the eastern parts of the Clark Mountain Range, Mescal Range, and Ivanpah Mountains. This Paleoproterozoic block is composed of a 1.7-Ga metamorphic complex of gneiss and schist that underwent widespread metamorphism and associated plutonism during the Ivanpah orogeny. The Paleoproterozoic rocks were intruded by a Mesoproterozoic (1.4 Ga) ultrapotassic alkaline intrusive suite and carbonatite body. The intrusive rocks include, from oldest to youngest, shonkinite, mesosyenite, syenite, quartz syenite, potassic granite, carbonatite, carbonatite dikes, and late shonkinite dikes. The diverse physical properties of rocks that underlie the study area are well suited to geophysical investigations. Contrasts in radiogenic signatures between Paleoproterozoic crystalline basement, rocks of the Mesoproterozoic carbonatite body and the associated alkaline intrusive suite, Paleozoic carbonate rocks, Mesozoic granitoids, Tertiary volcanic rocks, and unconsolidated alluvium, for example, produce a distinctive pattern of radiometric anomalies that can aid in understanding the geologic framework and mineral resource potential of the eastern Mojave Desert. A high-resolution radiometric survey of Mountain Pass was flown by helicopter over parts of the Clark Mountain Range, Mescal Range, and Ivanpah Mountains. Aeroradiometric surveys measure the intensity and energy spectrum of gamma-ray radiation from the three most common naturally occurring radioelements: potassium ( 40 K), thorium ( 232 Th), and uranium ( 238 U). For 232 Th and 238 U, the source of the gamma-rays comes from their thallium ( 208 Tl) and bismuth ( 214 Bi) decay products, respectively, and, thus, concentrations for Th and U are referred to as “equivalent concentration,” assuming radioactive equilibrium. The concentrations of these radioelements can be used together to estimate changes in geochemistry and lithology. Carbonatite deposits typically have distinctive geophysical signatures because they are relatively dense, magnetic, and radiogenic. Specifically, the carbonatite and alkaline intrusive suite at Mountain Pass is ultrapotassic and contains relatively significant amounts of K, Th, and U, which can be delineated using airborne radiometric surveys.

California↗

USGS1955

Geology and beryl deposits of the Peerless pegmatite, Pennington County, South Dakota

The Peerless pegmatite, half a mile south of Keystone, Pennington County, S. Dak., has been a large source of scrap mica and beryl. Feldspar, amblygonite, tantalite-columbite, and cassiterite also have been recovered. The pegmatite is intrusive into Precambrian quartz-mica schist. Much of the schist contains staurolite and chlorite. Staurolite has been partly altered to mica, quartz, and chlorite, especially near pegmatite contacts. The pegmatite is generally discordant with the schist, but in many places secondary schistosity has been developed parallel to the contact. Tourmaline and muscovite, presumably introduced by pegmatitic solutions, are characteristic of the wall rock near discordant contacts. At the surface the pegmatite is tadpole-shaped and is 580 feet long and 360 feet wide. In cross-section the pegmatite has an anticlinal form that suggests control of the intrusion by fractures bearing N. 30°W. and dipping 45°NE. and SW. Dike-like apophyses extending from the main pegmatite have various attitudes. The Peerless pegmatite is a complex pegmatite consisting of seven zones, two replacement units, and two types of fracture-fillings. These are: Zone 1, quartz-muscovite-plagioclase pegmatite (border zone); Zone 2, albite-quartz-muscovite pegmatite (wall zone); Zone 3, cleavelandite-quartz-muscovite pegmatite (first intermediate zone); Zone 4, perthite-cleavelandite-quartz pegmatite (second intermediate zone); Zone 5, clevelandite-quartz pegmatite (third intermediate zone); Zones 6a and b, quartz-microcline pegmatite and quartz pegmatite (fourth intermediate zone); Zone 7, lithia mica-cleavelandite pegmatite (core); lithia mica-cleavelandite-quartz replacement unit; muscovite-cleavelandite replacement unit; quartz fracture-fillings; and tourmaline-quartz fracture-fillings. Zones 1 and 2 consist of alternating layers of different texture and mineralogy that are parallel to the contact. The layers contain differing proportions of quartz, plagioclase, muscovite, perthite, and accessory minerals. Sugary albite-quartz aggregates are important constituents of some layers. Layers of similar composition may occur two, three, or perhaps more times. The overall mineralogic composition of Zones 1 and 2 is similar to the composition of wall zones in many other Black Hills pegmatite, Zones 3 to 7 are in the normal sequence of zones in Black Hills pegmatites. The structural, textural, and mineralogic data confirm previously published evidence from other Black Hills pegmatites that indicates crystallization of a magma-like fluid from the wall inward. Repetition of layers in Zones 1 and 2 indicates changes in composition of the fluid at the crystallizing face. These changes may have been caused by addition of new material from below, by loss of material to the wall rocks, or by failure of convection to maintain equilibrium throughout the fluid in the pegmatite chamber. Zone 3 to 7 are in the normal sequence of zoned pegmatites that indicates crystallization from a restricted or nearly closed system. The lithia mica-cleavelandite replacement unit, which extends outward from the core, shows that in, the very late stages of crystallization a pneumatolytic or hydrothermal fluid escaped outward and replaced previously crystallized pegmatite. Accessory minerals of the pegmatite include tourmaline, beryl, apatite, amblygonite (variety, montebrasite), lithia mica, cassiterite, tantalite-columbite, garnet, spodumene, svanbergite, loellingite (?), vivianite (?), triploidite (?), dahllite, and vari-colored phosphate minerals of the lithiophilitetriphylite group and their alteration products. The chemical composition of the pegmatite has been determined by estimating the mineral, constitution of the various units and by calculating the tonnage of these units by use of successive geologic sections. The principal constituents are: SiO 2 (77.0 percent), Al 2 O 3 (13.7 percent), Na 2 O (5.0 percent), and K 2 O (1.7 percent). Chemical composition has also been determined for four subdivisions of the pegmatite: (A) Zones 1 and 2, (B) Zones 3 and 4, (C) Zone 5, and (D) Zones 6 and 7 and the replacement units. The content of Si0 2 increases and the content of Al 2 O 3 decreases from the outer pan of the pegmatite inward. Na 2 O forms only 0.4 percent of the inner subdivision (D), but 4 .7 to 6.5 percent of the other subdivisions. K 2 O forms 4.0 percent of subdivision (B), but only 0.7 to 1.3 percent of the other subdivisions. Zone 3, the principal minable unit, contains 1. 7 percent beryl and 28 percent scrap mica. Beryl also constitutes more than 1 percent of parts of the wall zone, especially albite-rich layers of the inner part of the unit in the upper part of the pegmatite. Beryl is a less important constituent of other units of the pegmatite. Potash feldspar is mined chiefly from Zone 4. Clevelandite that can be hand-cobbed and sold as soda-feldspar occurs in Zones 3, 4, and 5. Amblygomlte forms between 0.5 and 1.0 percent of Zone 5. Reserves of beryl, scrap mica, potash feldspar, and amblygonite are one to six times past production.

South Dakota↗

USGS2007

Fate and groundwater impacts of produced water releases at OSPER "B" site, Osage County, Oklahoma

For the last 5 a, the authors have been investigating the transport, fate, natural attenuation and ecosystem impacts of inorganic and organic compounds in releases of produced water and associated hydrocarbons at the Osage-Skiatook Petroleum Environmental Research (OSPER) “A” and “B” sites, located in NE Oklahoma. Approximately 1.0 ha of land at OSPER “B”, located within the active Branstetter lease, is visibly affected by salt scarring, tree kills, soil salinization, and brine and petroleum contamination. Site “B” includes an active production tank battery and adjacent large brine pit, two injection well sites, one with an adjacent small pit, and an abandoned brine pit and tank battery site. Oil production in this lease started in 1938, and currently there are 10 wells that produce 0.2–0.5 m 3 /d (1–3 bbl/d) oil, and 8–16 m 3 /d (50–100 bbl/d) brine. Geochemical data from nearby oil wells show that the produced water source is a Na–Ca–Cl brine (∼150,000 mg/L TDS), with high Mg, but low SO 4 and dissolved organic concentrations. Groundwater impacts are being investigated by detailed chemical analyses of water from repeated sampling of 41 boreholes, 1–71 m deep. The most important results at OSPER “B” are: (1) significant amounts of produced water from the two active brine pits percolate into the surficial rocks and flow towards the adjacent Skiatook reservoir, but only minor amounts of liquid petroleum leave the brine pits; (2) produced-water brine and minor dissolved organics have penetrated the thick (3–7 m) shale and siltstone units resulting in the formation of three interconnected plumes of high-salinity water (5000–30,000 mg/L TDS) that extend towards the Skiatook reservoir from the two active and one abandoned brine pits; and (3) groundwater from the deep section of only one well, BR-01 located 330 m upslope and west of the site, appear not to be impacted by petroleum operations.

Oklahoma↗

USGS2007

The effects of acidic mine drainage from historical mines in the Animas River watershed, San Juan County, Colorado—What is being done and what can be done to improve water quality?

Historical production of metals in the western United States has left a legacy of acidic drainage and toxic metals in many mountain watersheds that are a potential threat to human and ecosystem health. Studies of the effects of historical mining on surface water chemistry and riparian habitat in the Animas River watershed have shown that cost-effective remediation of mine sites must be carefully planned. of the more than 5400 mine, mill, and prospect sites in the watershed, ∼80 sites account for more than 90% of the metal loads to the surface drainages. Much of the low pH water and some of the metal loads are the result of weathering of hydrothermally altered rock that has not been disturbed by historical mining. Some stream reaches in areas underlain by hydrothermally altered rock contained no aquatic life prior to mining. Scientific studies of the processes and metal-release pathways are necessary to develop effective remediation strategies, particularly in watersheds where there is little land available to build mine-waste repositories. Characterization of mine waste, development of runoff profiles, and evaluation of ground-water pathways all require rigorous study and are expensive upfront costs that land managers find difficult to justify. Tracer studies of water quality provide a detailed spatial analysis of processes affecting surface- and ground-water chemistry. Reactive transport models were used in conjunction with the best state-of-the-art engineering solutions to make informed and cost-effective remediation decisions. Remediation of 23% of the high-priority sites identified in the watershed has resulted in steady improvement in water quality. More than $12 million, most contributed by private entities, has been spent on remediation in the Animas River watershed. The recovery curve for aquatic life in the Animas River system will require further documentation and long-term monitoring to evaluate the effectiveness of remediation projects implemented.

Colorado, Montana↗

USGS2011

A geologic and anthropogenic journey from the Precambrian to the new energy economy through the San Juan volcanic field

The San Juan volcanic field comprises 25,000 km 2 of intermediate composition mid-Tertiary volcanic rocks and dacitic to rhyolitic calderas including the San Juan–Uncompahgre and La Garita caldera-forming super-volcanoes. The region is famous for the geological, ecological, hydrological, archeological, and climatological diversity. These characteristics supported ancestral Puebloan populations. The area is also important for its mineral wealth that once fueled local economic vitality. Today, mitigating and/or investigating the impacts of mining and establishing the region as a climate base station are the focuses of ongoing research. Studies include advanced water treatment, the acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) of propylitic bedrock for use in mine-lands cleanup, and the use of soil amendments including biochar from beetle-kill pines. Biochar aids soil productivity and revegetation by incorporation into soils to improve moisture retention, reduce erosion, and support the natural terrestrial carbon sequestration (NTS) potential of volcanic soils to help offset atmospheric CO 2 emissions. This field trip will examine the volcano-tectonic and cultural history of the San Juan volcanic field as well as its geologic structures, economic mineral deposits and impacts, recent mitigation measures, and associated climate research. Field trip stops will include a visit to (1) the Summitville Superfund site to explore quartz alunite-Au mineralization, and associated alteration and new water-quality mitigation strategies; (2) the historic Creede epithermal-polymetallic–vein district with remarkably preserved resurgent calderas, keystone-graben, and moat sediments; (3) the historic mining town of Silverton located in the nested San Juan–Silverton caldera complex that exhibits base-metal Au-Ag mineralization; and (4) the site of ANC and NTS studies. En route back to Denver, we will traverse Grand Mesa, a high NTS area with Neogene basalt-derived soils and will enjoy a soak in the geothermal waters of the Aspen anomaly at Glenwood Springs.

Colorado↗