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At least 1,099 records · Page 61Linked to original sources
USGS2008

Documentation of Computer Program INFIL3.0 - A Distributed-Parameter Watershed Model to Estimate Net Infiltration Below the Root Zone

This report documents the computer program INFIL3.0, which is a grid-based, distributed-parameter, deterministic water-balance watershed model that calculates the temporal and spatial distribution of daily net infiltration of water across the lower boundary of the root zone. The bottom of the root zone is the estimated maximum depth below ground surface affected by evapotranspiration. In many field applications, net infiltration below the bottom of the root zone can be assumed to equal net recharge to an underlying water-table aquifer. The daily water balance simulated by INFIL3.0 includes precipitation as either rain or snow; snowfall accumulation, sublimation, and snowmelt; infiltration into the root zone; evapotranspiration from the root zone; drainage and water-content redistribution within the root-zone profile; surface-water runoff from, and run-on to, adjacent grid cells; and net infiltration across the bottom of the root zone. The water-balance model uses daily climate records of precipitation and air temperature and a spatially distributed representation of drainage-basin characteristics defined by topography, geology, soils, and vegetation to simulate daily net infiltration at all locations, including stream channels with intermittent streamflow in response to runoff from rain and snowmelt. The model does not simulate streamflow originating as ground-water discharge. Drainage-basin characteristics are represented in the model by a set of spatially distributed input variables uniquely assigned to each grid cell of a model grid. The report provides a description of the conceptual model of net infiltration on which the INFIL3.0 computer code is based and a detailed discussion of the methods by which INFIL3.0 simulates the net-infiltration process. The report also includes instructions for preparing input files necessary for an INFIL3.0 simulation, a description of the output files that are created as part of an INFIL3.0 simulation, and a sample problem that illustrates application of the code to a field setting. Brief descriptions of the main program routine and of each of the modules and subroutines of the INFIL3.0 code, as well as definitions of the variables used in each subroutine, are provided in an appendix.

Scientific Investigations Report↗
USGS2016

Characterizing supraglacial meltwater channel hydraulics on the Greenland Ice Sheet from in situ observations

Supraglacial rivers on the Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) transport large volumes of surface meltwater toward the ocean, yet have received relatively little direct research. This study presents field observations of channel width, depth, velocity, and water surface slope for nine supraglacial channels on the southwestern GrIS collected between 23 July and 20 August, 2012. Field sites are located up to 74 km inland and span 494-1485 m elevation, and contain measured discharges larger than any previous in situ study: from 0.006 to 23.12 m 3 /s in channels 0.20 to 20.62 m wide. All channels were deeply incised with near vertical banks, and hydraulic geometry results indicate that supraglacial channels primarily accommodate greater discharges by increasing velocity. Smaller streams had steeper water surface slopes (0.74-8.83%) than typical in terrestrial settings, yielding correspondingly high velocities (0.40-2.60 m/s) and Froude numbers (0.45-3.11) with supercritical flow observed in 54% of measurements. Derived Manning's n values were larger and more variable than anticipated from channels of uniform substrate, ranging from 0.009 to 0.154 with a mean value of 0.035 +/- 0.027 despite the absence of sediment, debris, or other roughness elements. Ubiquitous micro-depressions in shallow sections of the channel bed may explain some of these roughness values. However, we find that other, unobserved sources of flow resistance likely contributed to these elevated n values: future work should explicitly consider additional sources of flow resistance beyond bed roughness in supraglacial channels. We conclude that hydraulic modelling for these channels must allow for both sub- and supercritical flow, and most importantly must refrain from assuming that all ice-substrate channels exhibit similar hydraulic behavior, especially for Froude numbers and Manning's n. Finally, this study highlights that further theoretical and empirical work on supraglacial channel hydraulics is necessary before broad scale understanding of ice sheet hydrology can be achieved. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Earth Surface Processes and Landforms↗
USGS2014

Monitoring gray wolf populations using multiple survey methods

The behavioral patterns and large territories of large carnivores make them challenging to monitor. Occupancy modeling provides a framework for monitoring population dynamics and distribution of territorial carnivores. We combined data from hunter surveys, howling and sign surveys conducted at predicted wolf rendezvous sites, and locations of radiocollared wolves to model occupancy and estimate the number of gray wolf (Canis lupus) packs and individuals in Idaho during 2009 and 2010. We explicitly accounted for potential misidentification of occupied cells (i.e., false positives) using an extension of the multi-state occupancy framework. We found agreement between model predictions and distribution and estimates of number of wolf packs and individual wolves reported by Idaho Department of Fish and Game and Nez Perce Tribe from intensive radiotelemetry-based monitoring. Estimates of individual wolves from occupancy models that excluded data from radiocollared wolves were within an average of 12.0% (SD = 6.0) of existing statewide minimum counts. Models using only hunter survey data generally estimated the lowest abundance, whereas models using all data generally provided the highest estimates of abundance, although only marginally higher. Precision across approaches ranged from 14% to 28% of mean estimates and models that used all data streams generally provided the most precise estimates. We demonstrated that an occupancy model based on different survey methods can yield estimates of the number and distribution of wolf packs and individual wolf abundance with reasonable measures of precision. Assumptions of the approach including that average territory size is known, average pack size is known, and territories do not overlap, must be evaluated periodically using independent field data to ensure occupancy estimates remain reliable. Use of multiple survey methods helps to ensure that occupancy estimates are robust to weaknesses or changes in any 1 survey method. Occupancy modeling may be useful for standardizing estimates across large landscapes, even if survey methods differ across regions, allowing for inferences about broad-scale population dynamics of wolves.

Idaho↗
USGS2014

Geomorphic evidence for enhanced Pliocene-Quaternary faulting in the northwestern Basin and Range

Mountains in the U.S. Basin and Range Province are similar in form, yet they have different histories of deformation and uplift. Unfortunately, chronicling fault slip with techniques like thermochronology and geodetics can still leave sizable, yet potentially important gaps at Pliocene–Quaternary (∼105–106 yr) time scales. Here, we combine existing geochronology with new geomorphic observations and approaches to investigate the Miocene to Quaternary slip history of active normal faults that are exhuming three footwall ranges in northwestern Nevada: the Pine Forest Range, the Jackson Mountains, and the Santa Rosa Range. We use the National Elevation Dataset (10 m) digital elevation model (DEM) to measure bedrock river profiles and hillslope gradients from these ranges. We observe a prominent suite of channel convexities (knickpoints) that segment the channels into upper reaches with low steepness (mean k sn = ∼182; θ ref = 0.51) and lower, fault-proximal reaches with high steepness (mean k sn = ∼361), with a concomitant increase in hillslope angles of ∼6°–9°. Geologic maps and field-based proxies for rock strength allow us to rule out static causes for the knickpoints and interpret them as transient features triggered by a drop in base level that created ∼20% of the existing relief (∼220 m of ∼1050 m total). We then constrain the timing of base-level change using paleochannel profile reconstructions, catchment-scale volumetric erosion fluxes, and a stream-power–based knickpoint celerity (migration) model. Low-temperature thermochronology data show that faulting began at ca. 11–12 Ma, yet our results estimate knickpoint initiation began in the last 5 Ma and possibly as recently as 0.1 Ma with reasonable migration rates of 0.5–2 mm/yr. We interpret the collective results to be evidence for enhanced Pliocene–Quaternary fault slip that may be related to tectonic reorganization in the American West, although we cannot rule out climate as a contributing mechanism. We propose that similar studies, which remain remarkably rare across the region, be used to further test how robust this Plio–Quaternary landscape signal may be throughout the Great Basin.

U.S. Basin and Range Province↗
USGS1989

Determination of stream reaeration coefficients by use of tracers

Stream reaeration is the physical absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere by a flowing stream. This is the primary process by which a stream replenishes the oxygen consumed in the biodegradation of organic wastes. Prior to 1965, reaeration rate coefficients could be estimated only by indirect methods. In 1965, a direct method of measuring stream reaeration coefficients was developed whereby a radioactive tracer gas was injected into a stream-the principle being that the tracer gas would be desorbed from the stream inversely to how oxygen would be absorbed. The technique has since been modified by substituting hydrocarbon gases for the radioactive tracer gas. This manual describes the slug-injection and constant-rate-injection methods of measuring gas-tracer desorption. Emphasis is on the use of rhodamine WT dye as a relatively conservative tracer and propane as the nonconservative gas tracer, on planning field tests, on methods of injection, sampling, and analysis, and on techniques for computing desorption and reaeration coefficients.

Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations↗
USGS1989

Accuracy of acoustic velocity metering systems for measurement of low velocity in open channels

Acoustic velocity meter (AVM) accuracy depends on equipment limitations, the accuracy of acoustic-path length and angle determination, and the stability of the mean velocity to acoustic-path velocity relation. Equipment limitations depend on path length and angle, transducer frequency, timing oscillator frequency, and signal-detection scheme. Typically, the velocity error from this source is about +or-1 to +or-10 mms/sec. Error in acoustic-path angle or length will result in a proportional measurement bias. Typically, an angle error of one degree will result in a velocity error of 2%, and a path-length error of one meter in 100 meter will result in an error of 1%. Ray bending (signal refraction) depends on path length and density gradients present in the stream. Any deviation from a straight acoustic path between transducer will change the unique relation between path velocity and mean velocity. These deviations will then introduce error in the mean velocity computation. Typically, for a 200-meter path length, the resultant error is less than one percent, but for a 1,000 meter path length, the error can be greater than 10%. Recent laboratory and field tests have substantiated assumptions of equipment limitations. Tow-tank tests of an AVM system with a 4.69-meter path length yielded an average standard deviation error of 9.3 mms/sec, and the field tests of an AVM system with a 20.5-meter path length yielded an average standard deviation error of a 4 mms/sec. (USGS)

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗
USGS1990

Comparison of accuracy and completeness of data obtained from three types of automatic water-quality monitors

A comparison of data (specific conductance, dissolved-oxygen concentration, temperature, and pH) collected by the U.S. Geological Survey flowthrough monitor, the U.S. Geological Survey minimonitor, and a self-contained commercial 'packaged-sensor' system indicates that the data obtained by means of the most complete of the three systems. The U.S. Geological Survey flowthrough monitor is powered by 120-volt alternating current and in a heated weather-proof shelter. A pumping system brings water from the stream to sensors clustered in a sample clustered in a sample chamber located in the shelter. This instrument measures output from the senors; data are recorded in binary-coded decimal form on a 16-channel punched-paper tape recorder tape recorder housed in the shelter. The U.S. Geological Survey's minimonitor is powered by an external battery and is housed in a weatherproof shelter. This instrument measures output of instream sensors with extension cables having underwater connectors; data are recorded in binary-coded decimal form on a 16-channel punched-paper tape recorder housed in the shelter. The packaged-sensor system also measures output of senors housed in a packages that is submerged in the stream. It has internal power supply, no moving parts, and does not requires a weatherproof shelter; data are stored are stored in solid-state memory. Minimonitors were installed at four sites in Ohio where U.S. Geological survey flowthrough were in operation. Two package-sensor systems also were assigned to each site and were alternated every two weeks. Detailed records were kept of (1) field measurements, for comparison with monitor-system data from each instrument, and (2) equipment problems that resulted in loss of data. Results of the comparisons shows that the flow-through monitor gave the most accurate and the most complete data.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗
USGS1992

Effects of horizontal velocity variations on ultrasonic velocity measurements in open channels

Use of an ultrasonic velocity meter to determine discharge in open channels involves measuring the velocity in a line between transducers in the stream and relating that velocity to the average velocity in the stream. The standard method of calculating average velocity in the channel assumes that the velocity profile in the channel can be represented by the one-dimensional von Karman universal velocity profile. However, the velocity profile can be described by a two-dimensional equation that accounts for the horizontal velocity variations induced by the channel sides. An equation to calculate average velocity accounts for the two-dimensional variations in velocity within a stream. The use of this new equation to calculate average velocity was compared to the standard method in theoretical trapezoidal cross sections and in the L-31N and Snapper Creek Extension Canals near Miami, Florida. These comparisons indicate that the two-dimensional variations have the most significant effect in narrow, deep channels. Also, the two-dimensional effects may be significant in some field situations and need to be considered when determining average velocity and discharge with an ultrasonic velocity meter.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗
USGS2002

Hydrogeology and ground-water-flow simulation of the Cave Springs area, Hixson, Tennessee

The ground-water resource in the Cave Springs area is used by the Hixson Utility District as a water supply and is one of the more heavily stressed in the Valley and Ridge Physiographic Province. In 1999, ground-water withdrawals by the Hixson Utility District averaged about 6.4 million gallons per day (Mgal/d) from two pumping centers. The Hixson Utility District has historically withdrawn about 5.8 Mgal/d from wells at Cave Springs. In 1995 to meet increasing demand, an additional well field was developed at Walkers Corner, located about 3 miles northeast of Cave Springs. From 1995 through 2000, pumping from the first production well at Walkers Corner averaged about 1.8 Mgal/d. A second production well at Walkers Corner was approved for use in 2000. Hixson Utility District alternates the use of the two production wells at Walkers Corner except when drought conditions occur when they are used simultaneously. The second production well increased the capacity of the well field by an additional 2 Mgal/d. The aquifer framework in the study area consists of dense Paleozoic carbonate rocks with secondary permeability that are mantled by thick residual clay-rich regolith in most of the area and by coarse-grained alluvium in the valley of North Chickamauga Creek. Cave Springs, one of the largest springs in Tennessee, derives its flow from conduits in a carbonate rock (karst) aquifer. Production wells at Cave Springs draw water from these conduits. Production wells at Walkers Corner primarily draw water from gravel zones in the regolith near the top of rock. Transmissivities estimated from hydraulic tests conducted across the Cave Springs area span a range from 240 to 900,000 feet squared per day (ft 2 /d) with a median value of 5,200 ft 2 /d. Recharge to the aquifer occurs from direct infiltration of precipitation and from losing streams. Most recharge occurs during the winter and spring months. Computer modeling was used to provide a better understanding of the ground-water-flow system and to simulate the effects of additional ground-water withdrawals. A numerical ground-water-flow model of the ground-water system was constructed and calibrated using MODFLOW 2000. Modeling results indicate that losing streams along the base of the Cumberland Plateau escarpment at the western edge of the study area are an important source of recharge to the ground-water system, supplying about 50 percent of the recharge to the study area. Direct infiltration of precipitation accounts for the remaining recharge to the study area. In 1999, ground-water withdrawals of 6.4 Mgal/d [9.9 cubic feet per second (ft 3 /s)] equaled about 11 percent of the total simulated ground-water recharge. The remaining ground-water recharge discharges to rivers (48 percent, 41.1 ft 3 /s), springs (19 percent, 16.8 ft 3 /s), and Chickamauga Lake (22 percent, 19.0 ft 3 /s). Drawdown at the Walkers Corner well field in 2000 was about 33 feet at the center of a cone of depression that is elongated along strike. If additional pumping at Walkers Corner increases withdrawals by 2 Mgal/d, simulated drawdown at the Walkers Corner well field increases to about 60 feet and simulated ground-water discharges decrease by amounts of 1.0 ft 3 /s to Chickamauga Lake, 0.8 ft 3 /s to North Chickamauga Creek, 0.5 ft 3 /s to Lick Branch-Rogers Spring drainage, 0.5 ft 3 /s to Poe Branch, and 0.2 ft 3 /s to Cave Springs.

Tennessee↗
USGS2010

Kinetics of selenium release in mine waste from the Meade Peak Phosphatic Shale, Phosphoria Formation, Wooley Valley, Idaho, USA

Phosphorite from the Meade Peak Phosphatic Shale member of the Permian Phosphoria Formation has been mined in southeastern Idaho since 1906. Dumps of waste rock from mining operations contain high concentrations of Se which readily leach into nearby streams and wetlands. While the most common mineralogical residence of Se in the phosphatic shale is elemental Se, Se(0), Se is also an integral component of sulfide phases (pyrite, sphalerite and vaesite–pyrite ss ) in the waste rock. It may also be present as adsorbed selenate and/or selenite, and FeSe 2 and organo-selenides. Se release from the waste rock has been observed in field and laboratory experiments. Release rates calculated from waste rock dump and column leachate solutions describe the net, overall Se release from all of the possible sources of Se listed above. In field studies, Se concentration in seepage water (pH 7.4–7.8) from the Wooley Valley Unit 4 dump ranges from 3600 µg/L in May to 10 µg/L by Sept. Surface water flow, Q , from the seep also declines over the summer, from 2 L/s in May to 0.03 L/s in Sept. Se flux ([Se] ⁎ Q ) reaches a steady-state of < 150 mg/day in 1–4 months, depending upon the volume of Q . Se release (mg/L) follows a first order reaction with a rate constant, k , = 1.35 – 6.35e−3 h − 1 (11.8–55.6 yr − 1 ). Laboratory experiments were performed with the waste shale in packed bed reactors; residence time varied from 0.09 to 400 h and outlet pH ∼ 7.5. Here, Se concentration increased with increasing residence time and release was modeled with a first order reaction with k = 2.19e−3 h − 1 (19.2 yr − 1 ). Rate constants reported here fall within an order of magnitude of reported rate constants for oxidation of Se(0) formed by bacterial precipitation. This similarity among rate constants from both field and laboratory studies combined with the direct observation of Se(0) in waste shales of the Phosphoria Formation suggests that oxidation of Se(0) may control steady-state Se concentration in water draining the Wooley Valley waste dump.

Idaho↗
USGS1997

Measurement of flow under ice covers in North America

A substantial proportion of natural streams in the United States and Canada are affected by ice cover during the winter. To substantiate the currently used procedures for measuring streamflow during the winter, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and Water Survey of Canada (WSC) began independent, coordinated programs for research and development related to the measurement of streamflow under an ice cover. Detailed measurements of vertical velocity profiles under ice covers in field settings were collected by each agency in accordance with standardized guidelines. The data were then compiled into a joint database. This paper presents a description of the two measurement programs, describes the structure and format of the joint database, and provides preliminary summaries of the data. Ongoing research efforts by the USGS and WSC are described briefly to give examples of the use of the joint database.

Journal of Hydraulic Engineering↗
USGS2024

The dominance and growth of shallow groundwater resources in continuous permafrost environments

Water is a limited resource in Arctic watersheds with continuous permafrost because freezing conditions in winter and the impermeability of permafrost limit storage and connectivity between surface water and deep groundwater. However, groundwater can still be an important source of surface water in such settings, feeding springs and large aufeis fields that are abundant in cold regions and generating runoff when precipitation is rare. Whether groundwater is sourced from suprapermafrost taliks or deeper regional aquifers will impact water availability as the Arctic continues to warm and thaw. Previous research is ambiguous about the role of deep groundwater, leading to uncertainty regarding Arctic water availability and changing water resources. We analyzed chemistry and residence times of spring, stream, and river waters in the continuous permafrost zone of Alaska, spanning the mountains to the coastal plain. Water chemistry and age tracers show that surface waters are predominately sourced from recent precipitation and have short (<50 y) subsurface residence times. Remote sensing indicates trends in the areal extent of aufeis over the last 37 y, and correlations between aufeis extent and previous year summer temperature. Together, these data indicate that surface waters in continuous permafrost regions may be impacted by short flow paths and shallow suprapermafrost aquifers that are highly sensitive to climatic and hydrologic change over annual timescales. Despite the lack of connection to regional aquifers, continued warming and permafrost thaw may promote deepening of the shallow subsurface aquifers and creation of shallow taliks, providing some resilience to Arctic freshwater ecosystems.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences↗
USGS1983

Mineral resource potential map of the Raywood Flat Roadless Areas, Riverside and San Bernardino counties, California

Geologic, geochemical, and geophysical studies within the Raywood "Flat Roadless Areas, together with an investigation of mines and prospects within the further planning area, resulted in (1) identification of nonmetallic mineral resources at a marble mine in the further planning area and (2) recognition of a small area in the recommended wilderness that has moderate potential for base-metal resources. Except for these two areas of identified and suspected resources, we did not observe indications of resource potential elsewhere in the Raywood Flat Roadless Areas. The area having nonmetallic mineral resources is in the vicinity of the Mill Creek mine near the northeastern boundary of the further planning area (B5-187); there, we identified marginal reserves of marble suitable for the production of lime and construction stone. The reserves are marginal because of their remote location and poor accessibility. Geologic mapping did not reveal any additional marble occurrences within the study area. The area having moderate potential for base-metal resources forms a small zone in the eastern part of the recommended wilderness (A5-187). Within this zone, evidence provided by stream-sediment geochemistry suggests that crystalline bedrocks in several drainages contain concentrations of metallic elements. Because the terrain is inaccessible and covered with dense brush, most of the bedrock in the specific drainages containing the geochemical anomalies could not be examined. Thus, although we infer that mineral occurrences exist in the drainage basins, we have little data on which to base an estimate of their extent and quality. Locally, the crystalline rocks probably contain hydrothermal veins or disseminated occurrences where lead, copper, molybdenum, tin, cobalt, bismuth, and arsenic have been concentrated. However, the geochemical anomalies for these metals are small, and the stream drainages also are relatively small. Therefore, the inferred occurrences of metallic minerals probably are small scale, scattered, and low grade. There is only low probability that the inferred mineral occurrences are large scale.

California↗
USGS2001

Arsenic in stream sediments of northern Alabama

OVERVIEW OF ARSENIC IN STREAM SEDIMENTS The overall range of arsenic in the NURE stream sediments was from 0.3 to 44 mg/kg sediment (ppm) As in the sample data set. The mean value was 4.3 ppm with a standard deviation of 4.1 ppm. For comparison, the crustal abundance of arsenic is 1.8 ppm (Taylor, 1964). Shale is higher, with average values of 15 ppm. Coal samples from the entire USGS National Coal Resource Data System coal database (Finkelman, 1994) average 24 ppm arsenic. A study of stream sediments from throughout the U.S. by the USGS NAWQA program reported that the 75th percentile for arsenic in 541 stream sediments was 9.5 ppm (Rice, 1999). Given the relatively low crustal abundance of arsenic, a number of stream-sediment samples in this study may be considered geochemically anomalous in this element.

Alabama↗
USGS2013

Analysis of environmental setting, surface-water and groundwater data, and data gaps for the Citizen Potawatomi Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area, Oklahoma, through 2011

The Citizen Potawatomi Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area, consisting of approximately 960 square miles in parts of three counties in central Oklahoma, has an abundance of water resources, being underlain by three principal aquifers (alluvial/terrace, Central Oklahoma, and Vamoosa-Ada), bordered by two major rivers (North Canadian and Canadian), and has several smaller drainages. The Central Oklahoma aquifer (also referred to as the Garber-Wellington aquifer) underlies approximately 3,000 square miles in central Oklahoma in parts of Cleveland, Logan, Lincoln, Oklahoma, and Pottawatomie Counties and much of the tribal jurisdictional area. Water from these aquifers is used for municipal, industrial, commercial, agricultural, and domestic supplies. The approximately 115,000 people living in this area used an estimated 4.41 million gallons of fresh groundwater, 12.12 million gallons of fresh surface water, and 8.15 million gallons of saline groundwater per day in 2005. Approximately 8.48, 2.65, 2.24, 1.55, 0.83, and 0.81 million gallons per day of that water were used for domestic, livestock, commercial, industrial, crop irrigation, and thermoelectric purposes, respectively. Approximately one-third of the water used in 2005 was saline water produced during petroleum production. Future changes in use of freshwater in this area will be affected primarily by changes in population and agricultural practices. Future changes in saline water use will be affected substantially by changes in petroleum production. Parts of the area periodically are subject to flooding and severe droughts that can limit available water resources, particularly during summers, when water use increases and streamflows substantially decrease. Most of the area is characterized by rural types of land cover such as grassland, pasture/hay fields, and deciduous forest, which may limit negative effects on water quality by human activities because of lesser emissions of man-made chemicals on such areas than in more urbanized areas. Much of the water in the area is of good quality, though some parts of this area have water quality impaired by very hard surface water and groundwater; large chloride concentrations in some smaller streams; relatively large concentrations of nutrients and counts of fecal-indicator bacteria in the North Canadian River; and chloride, iron, manganese, and uranium concentrations that exceed primary or secondary drinking-water standards in water samples collected from small numbers of wells. Substantial amounts of hydrologic and water-quality data have been collected in much of this area, but there are gaps in those data caused by relatively few streamflow-gaging stations, uneven distribution of surface-water quality sampling sites, lack of surface-water quality sampling at high-flow and low-flow conditions, and lack of a regularly measured and sampled groundwater network. This report summarizes existing water-use, climatic, geographic, hydrologic, and water-quality data and describes several means of filling gaps in hydrologic data for this area.

Oklahoma↗
USGS2015

Characterization of hydrology and water quality of Piceance Creek in the Alkali Flat area, Rio Blanco County, Colorado, March 2012

Previous studies by the U.S. Geological Survey identified Alkali Flat as an area of groundwater upwelling, with increases in concentrations of total dissolved solids, and streamflow loss, but additional study was needed to better characterize these observations. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Bureau of Land Management, White River Field Office, conducted a study to characterize the hydrology and water quality of Piceance Creek in the Alkali Flat area of Rio Blanco County, Colorado. Water-quality samples were collected at five springs on March 27, 2012, to determine field properties, major ions, trace elements, and stable isotopes of water. Major-ion and trace-element chemistry indicated that the springs sampled as part of this study were likely recharged by the bedrock aquifer. Isotopic values for the springs plotted close to that of groundwater from the Parachute Creek Member of the Green River Formation, and the isotopic values from both of these sources are similar to the values for Grand Mesa snow. Based on fluoride, lithium, and strontium concentrations, one spring appeared to have different source water than the other four springs. The spring also had higher concentrations of calcium, magnesium, and sulfate relative to the other four springs. Trace-element and major-ion data indicate that this spring was sourced from the Uinta Formation. It was likely the other four springs were primarily sourced from the lower part of the Parachute Creek Member of the Green River Formation as indicated by low sulfate concentrations and high fluoride, lithium, and boron concentrations. Water-quality samples were collected at 16 surface-water-quality sites on March 14, 2012, to determine field properties, major ions, and trace elements. Sodium was the dominant cation and concentrations increased steadily from upstream to downstream along the study reach. Calcium, magnesium, and potassium concentrations remained relatively stable along the study reach. Strontium concentrations were relatively stable along the study reach, whereas boron and lithium concentrations increased appreciably at site PC22031 and remained elevated to the end of the study reach. Loading profiles were used to further refine areas of spring and groundwater input and streamflow gains and losses. Although there was a minor gain in streamflow from sites PC21543 to PC21816 (58 to 59 cubic feet per second (ft 3 /s) during March 2014), the observed increase in dissolved solids load indicated groundwater contribution to Piceance Creek between these two sites. From sites PC22737 to PC22980, dissolved solids load decreased, which was not observed in concentration profiles and indicated that streamflow loss occurred between these two sites. Barium, boron, lithium, and strontium loads showed similar patterns to that of the major ions along the study reach and indicated similar areas of groundwater gain and loss. Boron and lithium load were not observed to decrease in a similar pattern to that of barium and strontium load which would suggest the contribution to the stream from sources with similar chemistry to that of spring sites PCSP2 through PCSP5. Sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate loads increased and decreased along the study reach in a pattern similar to that of dissolved solids load. A chemical mass balance was used to estimate the amount of groundwater and (or) spring water that contributed to the observed changes in water quality along Piceance Creek. This analysis indicated only 5 percent spring water would need to reach Piceance Creek to result in the observed changes in water quality. Instantaneous streamflow was measured from sites PC20133 to PC23721 during field reconnaissance (February 2012) and during synoptic sampling (March 2012). During both February and March, the study reach from sites PC20133 to PC23721 was a losing reach with net losses that ranged from 0.5 ft 3 /s (February) to 3 ft 3 /s (March). Observed changes in streamflow along the study reach helped to depict interactions between groundwater and surface water in the Alkali Flat area. Water-quality samples were collected at five surface-water sites in December 2010 that were sampled as part of a previous USGS study in 2000. Water-quality data collected during December 2010 showed no appreciable difference from water-quality data collected during December 2000 at the five sites.

Colorado↗
USGS2014

Karst geomorphology and hydrology of the Shenandoah Valley near Harrisonburg, Virginia

The karst of the central Shenandoah Valley has characteristics of both shallow and deep phreatic formation. This field guide focuses on the region around Harrisonburg, Virginia, where a number of these karst features and their associated geologic context can be examined. Ancient, widespread alluvial deposits cover much of the carbonate bedrock on the western side of the valley, where shallow karstification has resulted in classical fluviokarst development. However, in upland exposures of carbonate rock, isolated caves exist atop hills not affected by surface processes other than exposure during denudation. The upland caves contain phreatic deposits of calcite and fine-grained sediments. They lack any evidence of having been invaded by surface streams. Recent geologic mapping and LIDAR (light detection and ranging) elevation data have enabled interpretive association between bedrock structure, igneous intrusions, silicification and brecciation of host carbonate bedrock, and the location of several caves and karst springs. Geochemistry, water quality, and water temperature data support the broad categorization of springs into those affected primarily by shallow near-surface recharge, and those sourced deeper in the karst aquifer. The deep-seated karst formation occurred in the distant past where subvertical fracture and fault zones intersect thrust faults and/or cross-strike faults, enabling upwelling of deep-circulating meteoric groundwater. Most caves formed in such settings have been overprinted by later circulation of shallow groundwater, thus removing evidence of the history of earliest inception; however, several caves do preserve evidence of an earlier formation.

Virginia↗
USGS2011

Examination of brine contamination risk to aquatic resources from petroleum development in the Williston Basin

U.S. Geological Survey scientists and cooperating partners are examining the potential risk to aquatic resources (for example, wetlands, streams) by contamination from saline waters (brine) produced by petroleum development in the Williston Basin of Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota. The primary goals of this study are to provide a science-based approach to assess potential risk of brine contamination to aquatic systems and to help focus limited monitoring and mitigation resources on the areas of greatest need. These goals will be accomplished through field investigations that quantify brine movement and risk assessments using remotely-sensed and other spatial datasets.

Fact Sheet↗