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USGS2005

A new reconstruction of the Paleozoic continental margin of southwestern North America: Implications for the nature and timing of continental truncation and the possible role of the Mojave-Sonora megashear

Data bearing on interpretations of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic paleogeography of southwestern North America are important for testing the hypothesis that the Paleozoic miogeocline in this region has been tectonically truncated, and if so, for ascertaining the time of the event and the possible role of the Mojave-Sonora megashear. Here, we present an analysis of existing and new data permitting reconstruction of the Paleozoic continental margin of southwestern North America. Significant new and recent information incorporated into this reconstruction includes (1) spatial distribution of Middle to Upper Devonian continental-margin facies belts, (2) positions of other paleogeographically significant sedimentary boundaries on the Paleozoic continental shelf, (3) distribution of Upper Permian through Upper Triassic plutonic rocks, and (4) evidence that the southern Sierra Nevada and western Mojave Desert are underlain by continental crust. After restoring the geology of western Nevada and California along known and inferred strike-slip faults, we find that the Devonian facies belts and pre-Pennsylvanian sedimentary boundaries define an arcuate, generally south-trending continental margin that appears to be truncated on the southwest. A Pennsylvanian basin, a Permian coral belt, and a belt of Upper Permian to Upper Triassic plutons stretching from Sonora, Mexico, into westernmost central Nevada, cut across the older facies belts, suggesting that truncation of the continental margin occurred in the Pennsylvanian. We postulate that the main truncating structure was a left-lateral transform fault zone that extended from the Mojave-Sonora megashear in northwestern Mexico to the Foothills Suture in California. The Caborca block of northwestern Mexico, where Devonian facies belts and pre-Pennsylvanian sedimentary boundaries like those in California have been identified, is interpreted to represent a missing fragment of the continental margin that underwent ???400 km of left-lateral displacement along this fault zone. If this model is correct, the Mojave-Sonora megashear played a direct role in the Pennsylvanian truncation of the continental margin, and any younger displacement on this fault has been relatively small. ?? 2005 Geological Society of America.

Special Paper of the Geological Society of America↗
USGS2005

Northward laramide thrusting in the quitovac region, northwestern sonora, mexico: Implications for the juxtaposition of paleoproterozoic basement blocks and the mojave-sonora megashear hypothesis

Restoration of 12%–30% Basin and Range extension allows direct interpretation of ductile fabrics associated with a stack of Laramide thrust faults in the Quitovac region in northwestern Sonora. The inferred direction of displacement of these thrusts varies gradually from N63°W to N23°E and is interpreted to represent a clockwise rotation of the direction of Laramide thrusting through time. The thrust faults represent a piggy-back sequence of thrusting propagating north, toward the foreland. The average direction and sense of displacement of the thrusts is N18°W, and the cumulative 45 km of estimated northward-directed displacement corresponds to ∼86% of shortening. Based on geochronological constraints, onset of thrusting in Quitovac occurred sometime between 75 and 61 Ma, whereas cessation occurred at ca. 39 Ma. The presence of Paleocene-Eocene orogenic gold mineralization, spatially associated with thrusting, strengthens our idea that compressional tectonism associated with the Laramide orogeny is a very important and widespread dynamometamorphic event in the region. Similarities in age, kinematics, and structural stratigraphy indicate that the thrusting in the Quitovac region may be equivalent to the Laramide Quitobaquito Thrust in southwestern Arizona. In both areas, thrust faults juxtapose the Paleoproterozoic Caborca and “North America” basement blocks. This juxtaposition was previously proposed as exclusively related to movements along the hypothetical Upper Jurassic Mojave-Sonora megashear. The Laramide northward displacements and clockwise rotations recorded in the Caborca block rocks in Quitovac contradict the southward displacements (∼800 km) and counterclockwise rotations inherent in the left-lateral Upper Jurassic Mojave-Sonora megashear hypothesis. We conclude that if this megashear exists in northwestern Sonora, its trace should be to the southwest of the Quitovac region.

Special Papers of the Geological Society of Americ↗
USGS2005

Overview of radiometric ages in three allochthonous belts of northern Venezuela: Old ones, new ones, and their impact on regional geology

The margin of northern Venezuela is a complex zone representing the orogenic events from basement formation to subsequent subduction and exhumation during transpressional collision. This boundary zone has six east-west–trending belts that each record a different segment of its development. This geologic complexity requires radiometric ages to unravel, and we herein provide 48 new ages including U-Pb (4), Rb-Sr (2), 40 Ar/ 39 Ar (24), zircon and apatite fission-track (17), and 14 C (1) ages to constrain the evolution of three of these belts. These three belts are the Cordillera de la Costa, Caucagua–El Tinaco, and Serranía del Interior belts. In the Cordillera de la Costa belt, U-Pb geochronologic data indicate portions of the basement igneous and metaigneous rocks formed in the Cambro-Ordovician (513–471 Ma). New 40 Ar/ 39 Ar data from Margarita Island indicate that some of the subduction complex was rapidly cooled and exhumed, whereas other portions indicate slower cooling. This contrasts with new 40 Ar/ 39 Ar data from the Puerto Cabello portion of the subduction complex that has Eocene to Oligocene (42–28 Ma) cooling ages. New fission-track data imply the entire Cordillera de la Costa belt from Puerto Cabello to La Guaira (∼150 km) was uplifted at the same time. In the Caucagua–El Tinaco belt, the oldest 40 Ar/ 39 Ar amphibole ages from the Tinaquillo ultramafic complex are Jurassic (190 Ma). Additional amphibole 40 Ar/ 39 Ar cooling ages are older than previously recorded in either the Tinaco or Tinaquillo complex. One amphibole 40 Ar/ 39 Ar cooling age for the Tinaco complex is similar to previous U-Pb results. New apatite fission-track results from the Serranía del Interior foreland fold and thrust belt are synchronous with exhumation in the Cordillera de la Costa belt. In addition, several zircon fission-track ages in the Serranía del Interior belt are older than their fossil ages, indicating a Cretaceous minimum provenance age for Miocene beds. Significant new findings from these geochronologic studies include (1) several igneous and metaigneous bodies that may be correlated with orogenic events in the Appalachians occur within the subduction mélange; (2) the Tinaquillo complex may record Jurassic rifting; (3) Cretaceous source rocks for the Serranía del Interior sedimentary strata; (4) exhumation of the subduction complex is segmented because two regions have significantly different cooling histories, with Margarita Island exhumed in the Cretaceous, whereas to the west, the Puerto Cabello region has widespread Paleogene cooling and exhumation ages; and (5) earthquake activity in 1812 caused uplift as recorded by exposure of Recent corals.

northern Venezuela↗
USGS2006

An integrated chronostratigraphic data system for the twenty-first century

Research in stratigraphy is increasingly multidisciplinary and conducted by diverse research teams whose members can be widely separated. This developing distributed-research process, facilitated by the availability of the Internet, promises tremendous future benefits to researchers. However, its full potential is hindered by the absence of a development strategy for the necessary infrastructure. At a National Science Foundation workshop convened in November 2001, thirty quantitative stratigraphers and database specialists from both academia and industry met to discuss how best to integrate their respective chronostratigraphic databases. The main goal was to develop a strategy that would allow efficient distribution and integration of existing data relevant to the study of geologic time. Discussions concentrated on three major themes: database standards and compatibility, strategies and tools for information retrieval and analysis of all types of global and regional stratigraphic data, and future directions for database integration and centralization of currently distributed depositories. The result was a recommendation to establish an integrated chronostratigraphic database, to be called Chronos, which would facilitate greater efficiency in stratigraphic studies (http://www.chronos.org/) . The Chronos system will both provide greater ease of data gathering and allow for multidisciplinary synergies, functions of fundamental importance in a variety of research, including time scale construction, paleoenvironmental analysis, paleoclimatology and paleoceanography. Beyond scientific research, Chronos will also provide educational and societal benefits by providing an accessible source of information of general interest (e.g., mass extinctions) and concern (e.g., climatic change). The National Science Foundation has currently funded a three-year program for implementing Chronos.. ?? 2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

Special Paper of the Geological Society of America↗
USGS2006

The Hancock County tetrapod locality: A new Mississippian (Chesterian) wetlands fauna from western Kentucky (USA)

The earliest tetrapods are known from a handful of Upper Devonian and Lower Carboniferous localities in Europe, North America, and Australia. All Upper Devonian sites and virtually all Early Carboniferous faunas are regarded as predominantly aquatic and most occur within, or are associated with, wetland habitats. A new mid- Carboniferous (Elvirian, Namurian A) fossil locality in Kentucky preserves the fi rst tetrapod fauna from the eastern portion of the Illinois Basin. Four distinct facies at the locality have yielded vertebrate material. Diverse faunas have been found in an abandoned channel/oxbow facies and a fl oodplain/lake facies. The abandoned channel/oxbow facies contains Colosteidae, Embolomeri, Rhizodontida, Dipnoi, Xenacanthiformes, Palaeonisciformes, and Gyracanthidae remains. This assemblage is similar to known Mississippian freshwater and brackishwater faunas, providing further evidence of a cosmopolitan tetrapod province during the Mississippian. A different fauna, rich in tetrapods but lacking fi sh, is associated with granular carbonate masses, rooting structures, and a paleosol in the fl oodplain/ lake facies. Isolated and associated tetrapod elements from this facies exhibit morphological adaptations that may suggest a fauna of more highly terrestrial vertebrates than previously known from the North American Mississippian. ?? 2006 Geological Society of America.

Special Paper of the Geological Society of America↗
USGS2006

From wetlands to wet spots: Environmental tracking and the fate of carboniferous elements in early permian tropical fl oras

Diverse wetland vegetation flourished at the margins of the Midland Basin in north-central Texas during the Pennsylvanian Period. Extensive coastal swamps and an ever-wet, tropical climate supported lush growth of pteridosperm, marattialean fern, lycopsid, and calamite trees, and a wide array of ground cover and vines. As the Pennsylvanian passed into the Permian, the climate of the area became drier and more seasonal, the great swamps disappeared regionally, and aridity spread. The climatic inferences are based on changes in sedimentary patterns and paleosols as well as the general paleobotanical trends. The lithological patterns include a change from a diverse array of paleosols, including Histosols (ever-wet waterlogged soils), in the late Pennsylvanian to greatly diminished paleosol diversity with poorly developed Vertisols by the Early-Middle Permian transition. In addition, coal seams were present with wide areal distribution in the late Pennsylvanian whereas beds of evaporates were common by the end of the Early Permian. During this climatic transition, wetland plants were confi ned to shrinking "wet spots" found along permanent streams where the vegetation they constituted remained distinct if increasingly depauperate in terms of species richness. By Leonardian (late Early Permian) time, most of the landscape was dominated by plants adapted to seasonal drought and a deep water table. Wetland elements were reduced to scattered pockets, dominated primarily by weedy forms and riparian specialists tolerant of flooding and burial. By the Middle Permian, even these small wetland pockets had disappeared from the region. ?? 2006 Geological Society of America.

Special Paper of the Geological Society of America↗
USGS2006

U-Pb SHRIMP geochronology and trace-element geochemistry of coesite-bearing zircons, North-East Greenland Caledonides

Obtaining reliable estimates for the timing of eclogite-facies metamorphism is critical to establishing models for the formation and exhumation of high-pressure and ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) metamorphic terranes in collisional orogens. The presence of pressure-dependent phases, such as coesite, included in metamorphic zircon is generally regarded as evidence that zircon growth occurred at UHP conditions and, ifdated, should provide the necessary timing information. We report U-Pb sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) ages and trace-element SHRIMP data from coesite-bearing zircon suites formed during UHP metamorphism in the North- East Greenland Caledonides. Kyanite eclogite and quartzofeldspathic host gneiss samples from an island in J??kelbugt (78??00'N, 18??04'W) contained subspherical zircons with well-defined domains in cathodoluminescence (CL) images. The presence of coesite is confirmed by Raman spectroscopy in six zircons from four samples. Additional components of the eclogite-facies inclusion suite include kyanite, omphacite, garnet, and rutile. The trace-element signatures in core domains reflect modification of igneous protolith zircon. Rim signatures show flat heavy rare earth element (HREE) patterns that are characteristic of eclogite-facies zircon. The kyanite eclogites generally lack a Eu anomaly, whereas a negative Eu anomaly persists in all domains of the host gneiss. The 207 Pb- corrected 206 Pb/ 238 U ages range from 330 to 390 Ma for the host gneiss and 330-370 Ma for the kyanite eclogite. Weighted mean 206 Pb/ 238 U ages for coesite-bearing domains vary from 364 ?? 8 Ma for the host gneiss to 350 ?? 4 Ma for kyanite eclogite. The combined U-Pb and REE data interpreted in conjunction with observed CL domains and inclusion suites suggest that (1) Caledonian metamorphic zircon formed by both new zircon growth and recrystallization, (2) UHP metamorphism occurred near the end of the Caledonian collision, and (3) the 30-50m.y. span of ages records long residence times at eclogite-facies conditions for the UHProcks of North-East Greenland. This spread in observed ages is interpreted to be characteristic of metamorphic rocks that have experienced relatively long (longer than 10 m.y.) residence times at UHP conditions. ?? 2006 Geological Society of America.

Special Paper of the Geological Society of America↗
USGS2006

The role of sandstone in the development of an Ozark karst system, south-central Missouri

Cave, spring, and sinkhole development in the Ozarks of south-central Missouri is placed in a geologic framework through detailed geologic mapping. Geologic mapping shows that initial dissolution and inception of cave development is concentrated just beneath sandstone beds within Upper Cambrian and Lower Ordovician dolostone. Although rocks of the Ozarks have systematic and pervasive vertical joints, the development of karst conduits is controlled by bedding planes and stratigraphic variability. In the Salem Plateau of south-central Missouri, sinkholes occur in the lower part of the Ordovician Roubidoux Formation, where sinkholes are rimmed with and contain sandstone that has collapsed into voids in the underlying Ordovician Gasconade Dolomite. Cave diving by the Ozark Cave Diving Alliance into Alley Spring, a large (average flow 3.7 m3/s) spring along the Jacks Fork in the Ozark National Scenic Riverways, shows that although the spring discharges from the middle part of the Gasconade, the source of water is a cave passage just beneath the Gunter Sandstone Member of the Gasconade Dolomite. Artesian conditions cause the upward movement of groundwater from cavernous dolostone beneath the sandstone aquitards to the large springs. We hypothesize that sandstone, which is largely impermeable due to silica cementation, acts as a confining unit where hydraulic pressure, combined with mixing of water of differing chemistry, increases dissolution in the underlying dolostone beds. ?? 2006 Geological Society of America.

Special Paper of the Geological Society of America↗
USGS2006

Water-quality characteristics and contaminants in the rural karst-dominated Spring Mill Lake watershed, southern Indiana

The Spring Mill Lake watershed is located in the Mitchell Plateau, a karst area that developed on Mississippian carbonates in southern Indiana. Spring Mill Lake is a reservoir built in the late 1930s and is located in Spring Mill State Park. Within the park, groundwater from subsurface conduits issues as natural springs and then flows in surface streams to the lake. From 1998 to 2002, surface and subsurface hydrology and water quality were investigated to determine the types and sources of potential contaminants entering the lake. Water samples collected during base flow and a February 2000 storm event were analyzed for selected cations, anions, trace elements, selected U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) primary and secondary drinkingwater contaminants, nitrogen isotopes, suspended solids, Escherichia coli, and pesticides. All of the water samples met the EPA drinking-water standards for inorganic constituents, except those collected at five sites in August 1999 during a drought. Nitrate nitrogen (NO 3 -N) concentrations were highest during base-flow conditions and displayed a dilutional trend during peak-flow periods. The NO 3 -N concentrations in water samples collected during the 2001 spring fertilizer applications tended to increase from early to late spring. All of the ?? 15 N values were low, which is indicative of either an inorganic source or soil organic matter. Storm discharge contained increased concentrations of total suspended solids; thus, storms are responsible for most of the sediment accumulation in the lake. E. coli levels in 24% of the samples analyzed contained a most probable number (MPN) greater than 235/100 mL, which is the maximum acceptable level set for recreational waters in Indiana. E. coli does appear to be a potential health risk, particularly at Rubble spring. The sources of E. coli found at this spring may include barnyard runoff from a horse barn or wastes from a wastewater treatment facility. The pesticides atrazine, metolachlor, acetochlor, and simazine were detected during the spring of 2001. Atrazine, metolachlor, acetochlor, and simazine are used to suppress weeds during corn and soybean production. Additional sources of atrazine and simazine may result from application to right-of-ways, orchards, and managed forest areas. ?? 2006 Geological Society of America.

Special Paper of the Geological Society of America↗
USGS2006

Application of carbonate cyclostratigraphy and borehole geophysics to delineate porosity and preferential flow in the karst limestone of the Biscayne aquifer, SE Florida

Combined analyses of cores, borehole geophysical logs, and cyclostratigraphy produced a new conceptual hydrogeologic framework for the triple-porosity (matrix, touching-vug, and conduit porosity) karst limestone of the Biscayne aquifer in a 0.65 km 2 study area, SE Florida. Vertical lithofacies successions, which have recurrent stacking patterns, fit within high-frequency cycles. We define three ideal high-frequency cycles as: (1) upward-shallowing subtidal cycles, (2) upward-shallowing paralic cycles, and (3) aggradational subtidal cycles. Digital optical borehole images, tracers, and flow meters indicate that there is a predictable vertical pattern of porosity and permeability within the three ideal cycles, because the distribution of porosity and permeability is related to lithofacies. Stratiform zones of high permeability commonly occur just above flooding surfaces in the lower part of upward-shallowing subtidal and paralic cycles, forming preferential groundwater flow zones. Aggradational subtidal cycles are either mostly high-permeability zones or leaky, low-permeability units. In the study area, groundwater flow within stratiform high-permeability zones is through a secondary pore system of touching-vug porosity principally related to molds of burrows and pelecypods and to interburrow vugs. Movement of a dye-tracer pulse observed using a borehole fluid-temperature tool during a conservative tracer test indicates heterogeneous permeability. Advective movement of the tracer appears to be most concentrated within a thin stratiform flow zone contained within the lower part of a high-frequency cycle, indicating a distinctly high relative permeability for this zone. Borehole flow-meter measurements corroborate the relatively high permeability of the flow zone. Identification and mapping of such high-permeability flow zones is crucial to conceptualization of karst groundwater flow within a cyclostratigraphic framework. Many karst aquifers are included in cyclic platform carbonates. Clearly, a cyclostratigraphic approach that translates carbonate aquifer heterogeneity into a consistent framework of correlative units will improve simulation of karst groundwater flow. ?? 2006 Geological Society of America.

Southern Florida↗
USGS2006

CO 2 outgassing in a combined fracture and conduit karst aquifer near lititz spring, Pennsylvania

Lititz Spring in southeastern Pennsylvania and a nearby domestic well were sampled for 9 months. Although both locations are connected to conduits (as evidenced by a tracer test), most of the year they were saturated with respect to calcite, which is more typical of matrix flow. Geochemical modeling (PHREEQC) was used to explain this apparent paradox and to infer changes in matrix and conduit contribution to flow. The saturation index varied from 0.5 to 0 most of the year, with a few samples in springtime dropping below saturation. The log PCO 2 value varied from -2.5 to -1.7. Lower log PCO 2 values (closer to the atmospheric value of -3.5) were observed when the solutions were at or above saturation with respect to calcite. In contrast, samples collected in the springtime had high PCO 2 , low saturation indices, and high water levels. Geochemical modeling showed that when outgassing occurs from a water with initially high PCO 2 , the saturation index of calcite increases. In the Lititz Spring area, the recharge water travels through the soil zone, where it picks up CO 2 from soil gas, and excess CO 2 subsequently is outgassed when this recharge water reaches the conduit. At times of high water level (pipe full), recharge with excess CO 2 enters the system but the outgassing does not occur. Instead the recharge causes dilution, reducing the calcite saturation index. Understanding the temporal and spatial variation in matrix and conduit flow in karst aquifers benefited here by geochemical modeling and calculation of PCO 2 values. ?? 2006 Geological Society of America.

Special Paper of the Geological Society of America↗
USGS2006

Diagenetic alteration of impact spherules in the Neoarchean Monteville layer, South Africa

Intercontinental correlation of distal Archean impact ejecta layers can be used to help create a global time-stratigraphic framework for early Earth events. For example, an impact spherule layer in the Neoarchean Monteville Formation (Griqualand West Basin, South Africa) may be correlated with layers in one or more formations in Western Australia. To help assess the degree to which diagenetic alteration would hinder such correlations, we performed a petrographic study of spherules in the Monteville layer. Most of the spherules in the Monteville layer have botryoidal rims composed of radial-fibrous K-feldspar, but compaction and replacement have greatly altered their appearance and mineralogy. Moreover, the Monteville spherule layer consists of three main subunits, and spherule compaction varies between subunits as well as across the Griqualand West region. Compaction is about three times greater in a medial spherulerich subunit as compared to a basal subunit rich in large intraclasts, resulting in better preservation of the shapes of melt particles in the latter. However, spherule rims have omparable numbers of fractures in both subunits, indicating the melt particles were fractured prior to compaction. Some spherules contain mica ribbons with a septarian geometry. Fracturing via rapid thermal quenching could help explain all of these features. f hot spherules possessing crystalline rims were thermally shocked when they hit the ocean, fractures would have the observed geometries and provide pathways for fluid infiltration and local replacement of glass by mica. Although heavily distorted, impact spherules in the Monteville layer are very similar to those in the Hesta occurrence of the Neoarchean Jeerinah spherule layer of the Hamersley Basin, even showing similar diagenetic histories. In this instance, diagenetic alteration may actually help rather than hinder intercontinental correlation of impact spherule layers. ??2006 Geological Society of America.

Special Paper of the Geological Society of America↗
USGS2006

Upper Cretaceous to Holocene magmatism and evidence for transient Miocene shallowing of the Andean subduction zone under the northern Neuquén Basin

Evidence for a Miocene period of transient shallow subduction under the Neuquén Basin in the Andean backarc, and an intermittent Upper Cretaceous to Holocene frontal arc with a relatively stable magma source and arc-to-trench geometry comes from new 40 Ar/ 39 Ar, major- and trace-element, and Sr, Pb, and Nd isotopic data on magmatic rocks from a transect at ∼36°–38°S. Older frontal arc magmas include early Paleogene volcanic rocks erupted after a strong Upper Cretaceous contractional deformation and mid-Eocene lavas erupted from arc centers displaced slightly to the east. Following a gap of some 15 m.y., ca. 26–20 Ma mafic to acidic arc-like magmas erupted in the extensional Cura Mallín intra-arc basin, and alkali olivine basalts with intraplate signatures erupted across the backarc. A major change followed as ca. 20–15 Ma basaltic andesite–dacitic magmas with weak arc signatures and 11.7 Ma Cerro Negro andesites with stronger arc signatures erupted in the near to middle backarc. They were followed by ca. 7.2–4.8 Ma high-K basaltic to dacitic hornblende-bearing magmas with arc-like high field strength element depletion that erupted in the Sierra de Chachahuén, some 500 km east of the trench. The chemistry of these Miocene rocks along with the regional deformational pattern support a transient period of shallow subduction that began at ca. 20 Ma and climaxed near 5 Ma. The subsequent widespread eruption of Pliocene to Pleistocene alkaline magmas with an intraplate chemistry in the Payenia large igneous province signaled a thickening mantle wedge above a steepening subduction zone. A pattern of decreasingly arc-like Pliocene to Holocene backarc lavas in the Tromen region culminated with the eruption of a 0.175 ± 0.025 Ma mafic andesite. The northwest-trending Cortaderas lineament, which generally marks the southern limit of Neogene backarc magmatism, is considered to mark the southern boundary of the transient shallow subduction zone.

Neuquen Basiin↗
USGS2006

Large-volume volcanic edifice failures in Central America and associated hazards

Edifice-collapse phenomena have, to date, received relatively little attention in Central America, although ∼40 major collapse events (≥0.1 km 3 ) from about two dozen volcanoes are known or inferred in this volcanic arc. Volcanoes subjected to gravitational failure are concentrated at the arc's western and eastern ends. Failures correlate positively with volcano elevation, substrate elevation, edifice height, volcano volume, and crustal thickness and inversely with slab descent angle. Collapse orientations are strongly influenced by the direction of slope of the underlying basement, and hence are predominately perpendicular to the arc (preferentially to the south) at its extremities and display more variable failure directions in the center of the arc. The frequency of collapse events in Central America is poorly constrained because of the lack of precise dating of deposits, but a collapse interval of ∼1000–2000 yr has been estimated during the Holocene. These high-impact events fortunately occur at low frequency, but the proximity of many Central American volcanoes to highly populated regions, including some of the region's largest cities, requires evaluation of their hazards. The primary risks are from extremely mobile debris avalanches and associated lahars, which in Central America have impacted now-populated areas up to ∼50 km from a source volcano. Lower probability risks associated with volcanic edifice collapse derive from laterally directed explosions and tsunamis. The principal hazards of the latter here result from potential impact of debris avalanches into natural or man-made lakes. Much work remains on identifying and describing debris-avalanche deposits in Central America. The identification of potential collapse sites and assessing and monitoring the stability of intact volcanoes is a major challenge for the next decade.

GSA Special Papers↗
USGS2006

Downstream aggradation owing to lava dome extrusion and rainfall runoff at Volcán Santiaguito, Guatemala

Persistent lava extrusion at the Santiaguito dome complex (Guatemala) results in continuous lahar activity and river bed aggradation downstream of the volcano. We present a simple method that uses vegetation indices extracted from Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data to map impacted zones. Application of this technique to a time series of 21 TM images acquired between 1987 and 2000 allow us to map, measure, and track temporal and spatial variations in the area of lahar impact and river aggradation. In the proximal zone of the fluvial system, these data show a positive correlation between extrusion rate at Santiaguito (E), aggradation area 12 months later (A prox ), and rainfall during the intervening 12 months (Rain12): A prox =3.92+0.50 E+0.31 ln(Rain12) (r 2 =0.79). This describes a situation in which an increase in sediment supply (extrusion rate) and/or a means to mobilize this sediment (rainfall) results in an increase in lahar activity (aggraded area). Across the medial zone, we find a positive correlation between extrusion rate and/or area of proximal aggradation and medial aggradation area ( A med ): A med =18.84-0.05 A prox - 6.15 Rain12 ( r 2 =0.85). Here the correlation between rainfall and aggradation area is negative. This describes a situation in which increased sediment supply results in an increase in lahar activity but, because it is the zone of transport, an increase in rainfall serves to increase the transport efficiency of rivers flowing through this zone. Thus, increased rainfall flushes the medial zone of sediment. These quantitative data allow us to empirically define the links between sediment supply and mobilization in this fluvial system and to derive predictive relationships that use rainfall and extrusion rates to estimate aggradation area 12 months hence.

Volcán Santiaguito↗
USGS2006

The A.D. 1835 eruption of Volcán Cosigüina, Nicaragua: A guide for assessing local volcanic hazards

The January 1835 eruption of Volcán Cosigüina in northwestern Nicaragua was one of the largest and most explosive in Central America since Spanish colonization. We report on the results of reconnaissance stratigraphic studies and laboratory work aimed at better defining the distribution and character of deposits emplaced by the eruption as a means of developing a preliminary hazards assessment for future eruptions. On the lower flanks of the volcano, a basal tephra-fall deposit comprises either ash and fine lithic lapilli or, locally, dacitic pumice. An overlying tephra-fall deposit forms an extensive blanket of brown to gray andesitic scoria that is 35–60 cm thick at 5–10 km from the summit-caldera rim, except southwest of the volcano, where it is considerably thinner. The scoria fall produced the most voluminous deposit of the eruption and underlies pyroclastic-surge and -flow deposits that chiefly comprise gray andesitic scoria. In northern and southeastern sectors of the volcano, these flowage deposits form broad fans and valley fills that locally reach the Gulf of Fonseca. An arcuate ridge 2 km west of the caldera rim and a low ridge east of the caldera deflected pyroclastic flows northward and southeastward. Pyroclastic flows did not reach the lower west and southwest flanks, which instead received thick, fine-grained, accretionary-lapilli–rich ashfall deposits that probably derived chiefly from ash clouds elutriated from pyroclastic flows. We estimate the total bulk volume of erupted deposits to be ∼6 km 3 . Following the eruption, lahars inundated large portions of the lower flanks, and erosion of deposits and creation of new channels triggered rapid alluviation. Pre-1835 eruptions are poorly dated; however, scoria-fall, pyroclastic-flow, and lahar deposits record a penultimate eruption of smaller magnitude than that of 1835. It occurred a few centuries earlier—perhaps in the fifteenth century. An undated sequence of thick tephra-fall deposits on the west flank of the volcano records tens of eruptions, some of which were greater in magnitude than that of 1835. Weathering evidence suggests this sequence is at least several thousand years old. The wide extent of pyroclastic flows and thick tephra fall during 1835, the greater magnitude of some previous Holocene eruptions, and the location of Cosigüina on a peninsula limit the options to reduce risk during future unrest and eruption.

GSA Special Papers↗
USGS2006

Recent volcanic history of Irazu volcano, Costa Rica: alternation and mixing of two magma batches, and pervasive mixing

40 Ar/ 39 Ar dates, field observations, and geochemical data are reported for Irazú volcano, Costa Rica. Volcanism dates back to at least 854 ka, but has been episodic with lava shield construction peaks at ca. 570 ka and 136–0 ka. The recent volcanic record on Irazú volcano comprises lava flows and a variety of Strombolian and phreatomagmatic deposits, with a long-term trend toward more hydrovolcanic deposits. Banded scorias and hybridized rocks reflect ubiquitous magma mixing and commingling. Two distinct magma batches have been identified. One magma type or batch, Haya, includes basalt with higher high field strength (HFS) and rare-earth element contents, suggesting a lower degree melt of a subduction modified mantle source. The second batch, Sapper, has greater enrichment of large ion lithophile elements (LILE) relative to HFS elements and rare-earth elements, suggesting a higher subduction signature. The recent volcanic history at Irazú records two and one half sequences of the following pattern: eruptions of the Haya batch; eruptions of the Sapper batch; and finally, an unusually clear unconformity, indicating a pause in eruptions. In the last two sequences, strongly hybridized magma erupted after the eruption of the Haya batch. The continuing presence of two distinct magma batches requires two active magma chambers. The common occurrence of hybrids is evidence for a small, nearer to the surface chamber for mixing the two batches. Estimated pre-eruptive temperatures based on two-pyroxene geothermometry range from ∼1000–1176 °C in basalts to 922 °C in hornblende andesites. Crystallization occurred mainly between 4.6 and 3 kb as measured by different geobarometers. Hybridized rocks show intermediate pressures and temperatures. High silica magma occurs in very small volumes as banded scorias but not as lava flows. Although eruptions at Irazú are not often very explosive, the pervasiveness of magma mixing presents the danger of larger, more explosive hybrid eruptions.

Irazu volcano↗
USGS2007

Integrated geologic and geophysical studies of North American continental intraplate seismicity

The origin of earthquakes within stable continental regions has been the subject of debate over the past thirty years. Here, we examine the correlation of North American stable continental region earthquakes using five geologic and geophysical data sets: (1) a newly compiled age-province map; (2) Bouguer gravity data; (3) aeromagnetic anomalies; (4) the tectonic stress field; and (5) crustal structure as revealed by deep seismic-reflection profiles. We find that: (1) Archean-age (3.8–2.5 Ga) North American crust is essentially aseismic, whereas post-Archean (less than 2.5 Ga) crust shows no clear correlation of crustal age and earthquake frequency or moment release; (2) seismicity is correlated with continental paleorifts; and (3) seismicity is correlated with the NE-SW structural grain of the crust of eastern North America, which in turn reflects the opening and closing of the proto– and modern Atlantic Ocean. This structural grain can be discerned as clear NE-SW lineaments in the Bouguer gravity and aeromagnetic anomaly maps. Stable continental region seismicity either: (1) follows the NE-SW lineaments; (2) is aligned at right angles to these lineaments; or (3) forms clusters at what have been termed stress concentrators (e.g., igneous intrusions and intersecting faults). Seismicity levels are very low to the west of the Grenville Front (i.e., in the Archean Superior craton). The correlation of seismicity with NE-SW–oriented lineaments implies that some stable continental region seismicity is related to the accretion and rifting processes that have formed the North American continental crust during the past 2 b.y. We further evaluate this hypothesis by correlating stable continental region seismicity with recently obtained deep seismicreflection images of the Appalachian and Grenville crust of southern Canada. These images show numerous faults that penetrate deep (40 km) into the crust. An analysis of hypocentral depths for stable continental region earthquakes shows that the frequency and moment magnitude of events are nearly uniform for the entire 0–35 km depths over which crustal earthquakes extend. This is in contradiction with the hypothesis that larger events have deeper focal depths. We conclude that the deep structure of the crust, in particular the existence of deeply penetrating faults, is the controlling parameter, rather than lateral variations in temperature, rheology, or high pore pressure. The distribution of stable continental region earthquakes in eastern North America is consistent with the existence of deeply penetrating crustal faults that have been reactivated in the present stress field. We infer that future earthquakes may occur anywhere along the geophysical lineations that we have identified. This implies that seismic hazard is more widespread in central and eastern North America than indicated by the limited known historical distribution of seismicity.

Special Paper of the Geological Society of America↗