Geohydrology of North Eastern Province, Kenya
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Water Supply Paper↗
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The corrosive well waters of Egypt's western desert
The discovery that ground waters of Egypt's Western Desert are highly corrosive is lost in antiquity. Inhabitants of the oases have been aware of the troublesome property for many decades and early investigators mention it in their reports concerning the area. Introduction of modern well-drilling techniques and replacements of native wood casing with steel during the 20th century increased corrosion problems and, in what is called the New Valley Project, led to an intense search for causes and corrective treatments. This revealed that extreme corrosiveness results from combined effects of relatively acidic waters with significant concentrations of destructive sulfide ion; unfavorable ratios of sulfate and chloride to less aggressive ions; mineral equilibria and electrode potential which hinder formation of protective films; relative high chemical reaction rates because of abnormal temperatures, and high surface velocities related to well design. There is general agreement among investigators that conventional corrosion control methods such as coating metal surfaces, chemical treatment of the water, and electrolytic protection with impressed current and sacrificial electrodes are ineffective or impracticable for wells in the Western Desert's New Valley. Thus, control must be sought through the use of materials more resistant to corrosion than plain carbon steel wherever well screens and casings are necessary. Of the alternatives considered, stainless steel appears to. be the most promising where high strength and long-term services are required and the alloy's relatively high cost is acceptable. Epoxy resin-bonded fiberglass and wood appear to be practicable, relatively inexpensive alternatives for installations which do. not exceed their strength limitations. Other materials such as high strength aluminum and Monel Metal have shown sufficient promise to. merit their consideration in particular locations and uses. The limited experience with pumping in these desert wells leaves uncertainties concerning the durability of conventional pump designs. Egypt's New Valley Project provides an excellent opportunity for continuing study of the corrosion problems that concern ground-water developers in many parts of the world.
Water Supply Paper↗
A qualitative appraisal of the hydrology of the Yemen Arab Republic from Landsat images
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Water Supply Paper↗
Surface-water hydrology of coastal basins of northern California
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Water Supply Paper↗
Water resources in the vicinity of municipalities on the western Mesabi Iron Range, northeastern Minnesota
Additional supplies of water are available near the municipalities on the western Mesabi Iron Range. Potential yields from both ground-water and surface-water sources are good. The most productive aquifers for ground-water supplies are the Biwabik Iron-Formation and the stratified glacial drift. Areas of stratified drift believed to have good water potential have been outlined. The most abundant surface-water supplies in the area of this report are from the Mississippi River and its tributaries. The ground water is generally hard and has a high concentration of iron and manganese. The surface water is generally high in iron and is colored. Analyses of water from many sources are included. Data from many wells and test holes are given as are flow data for two discharge stations.
Minnesota↗
Water resources in the vicinity of municipalities on the west-central Mesabi Iron Range, northeastern Minnesota
Additional supplies of water are available near the municipalities or the west-central Mesabi Iron Range. The largest sources are the ground-water aquifers in the Biwabik Iron-Formation and the stratified glacial drift. Areas of stratified drift that probably have good water potential have been outlined. Surface-water supplies are negligible in the eastern part of this area but increase toward the west. Flow records from one gaging station, results of discharge measurements at two miscellaneous sites, and data from many wells and test holes are presented. Most of the ground water is hard and has a high concentration of iron and manganese. The surface water generally has a high concentration of. iron and is colored. Analyses of water from many sources are .shown.
Minnesota↗
Water resources in the vicinity of municipalities on the central Mesabi Iron Range, northeastern Minnesota
Additional supplies of water are available near the municipalities on the central Mesabi Iron Range. Ground water presents the greatest potential yield, and most of the productive aquifers are in the Biwabik Iron-Formation and the stratified glacial drift. /k single body of ice-contact stratified drift underlies parts of all but one of the five municipality areas mapped. Surface-water supplies are generally inadequate. The Two River system in the eastern part of the area of this report offers some possibilities. Flow data from one discharge station and one miscellaneous gaging site are presented. Analyses of water from many sources are presented as are data from many wells and test holes. Ground water commonly has a concentration of high iron and manganese and is hard. Surface water generally has a high concentration of iron and is colored.
Minnesota↗
Water resources in the vicinity of municipalities on the east-central Mesabi Iron Range, northeastern Minnesota
Additional supplies of water are available near the municipalities on the east-central Mesabi Iron Range. Both ground water and surface water offer good potential supplies. For the ground-water supplies, the most productive aquifers are the Biwabik Iron Formation and the stratified glacial drift. Surface-water supplies are variable. Streams in the western part of the report area are too small to yield supplies of importance, but lakes are a good potential supply. Eveleth and Gilbert are the only towns presently utilizing this source. In the eastern part of the area of this report, the Pike and Embarrass Rivers offer good potential supplies. Flow records from two gaging stations are presented as are data from many wells and test holes. Surface water generally has a high concentration of iron and is colored. Most ground water has a high concentration of iron and manganese and is hard. Analyses of water from many sources are presented.
Minnesota↗
Water resources in the vicinity of municipalities on the eastern Mesabi Iron Range and the Vermilion Iron Range, northeastern Minnesota
Additional supplies of water are available near the municipalities on the eastern Mesabi Iron Range and the Vermilion Iron Range. On the eastern Mesabi Range the potential for additional development of both ground-water and surface-water supplies are good, and on the Vermilion Range the best potential for development is from surface-water resources. The most productive aquifers in the area of this report are the Biwabik Iron-Formation and the stratified glacial drift; Bast of Colby Lake the Biwabik Iron-Formation is not an important aquifer, and it is entirely absent on the Vermilion Range. Also, on the Vermilion Range the glacial drift is generally too thin to yield the quantities of water found on the Mesabi Range. Surface-water supplies in the area of this report are good. An extensive network of river systems and many lakes form a large untapped potential supply. Records of flow from eight gaging stations are presented as are data from many wells and test holes. Ground water commonly has a high concentration of iron and manganese and is hard. Surface water generally has a high concentration of iron and is colored. Analyses of water from many sources are included.
Minnesota↗
Report of progress of stream measurements for the calendar year 1905, Part XII, The Great Basin drainage
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Water Supply Paper↗
Ground-water levels in the United States, 1956-60, northwestern states
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Water Supply Paper↗
The Water Supply of El Morro National Monument
In the land of enchantment, between Gallup and Grants, N. Mex., near the Zuni Mountains, a huge sandstone bluff rises abruptly 200 feet above the plain. The Spaniards called it 'El Morro,' which means 'the headland' or 'bluff.' Around it are other mesas and canyons and stands of pinon and ponderosa pine. Other great rocks are nearby, but none are as popular as El Morro, and none have been as important to the traveler. For at El Morro there is water. In that country, water is scarce and precious. In the old days, travelers from Santa Fe would tell each other about the pool of clear, refreshing water at the base of the huge rock. This is the story of the great bluff, its water supply, and the rocks around it. In the late summer of 1849, an American lieutenant of the Topographical Engineers, James H. Simpson, accompanied infantry and artillery troops on a reconnaissance march from Santa Fe into the Navajo Country. On September 18, at the urging of one Mr. Lewis, an Indian trader, Lieutenant Simpson left the main party in order to see 'half an acre of inscriptions' upon a huge rock (fig. 1) . Although somewhat dubious, the Lieutenant had allowed himself to be persuaded by Lewis that the trip was worthwhile. Taking with him an artist named R. H. Kern, another man by the name of Bird, and Mr. Lewis as guide, he set off through miles of desert country, filled with huge red and white sandstone rocks, 'some of them looking like steamboats, and others presenting very much the appearance of facades of heavy Egyptian architecture'.
Water Supply Paper↗
Hydrology of the Babylon-Islip area, Suffolk County, Long Island, New York
The report area comprises 270 square miles, and includes most of the Towns of Babylon and Islip, and parts of the Towns of Huntington, Smithtown, and Brookhaven, in southwestern Suffolk County, New York. Almost all the water used in the area is obtained from wells screened in permeable zones of the ground-water reservoir which consists of unconsolidated deposits of gravel, sand, silt, and clay as much as 1,800 feet thick. The ground-water reservoir contains three principal aquifers. From the surface down these are (a) surficial deposits of sand and gravel of Pleistocene age, (b) sands of the Magothy (?) Formation of Cretaceous age, and (c) the Lloyd Sand Member of the Raritan Formation of Cretaceous age. At present only the upper two aquifers are tapped by wells. Natural replenishment of the ground-water reservoir in the area takes place entirely by infiltration of precipitation and averages about 215 mgd (million gallons per day). Average ground-water runoff to streams above tidewater is 114 mgd, and it is estimated that an additional 54 mgd is discharged into tidal reaches of streams. Ground-water evapotranspiration is computed to be about 10 mgd and submarine outflow from the area is estimated to be 18 mgd. The average streamflow of the area above tidewater is 120 mgd. Because of the permeable soils and low relief, direct runoff is only about 5 percent of the average streamflow. Streams are perennial along their middle and lower reaches and exhibit well-sustained low flows. Flooding rarely occurs although continued urbanization may result in minor flooding problems as additional storm sewers are constructed. Water in most of the area is generally of good quality; however, it may be contaminated locally. Some streams and parts of the water-table aquifer contain low concentrations of synthetic detergents and other dissolved constituents from domestic and industrial wastes. Salty water occurs in parts of the water-table aquifer in the area under and bordering Great South Bay and under the barrier beaches. Present information, however, indicates that submarine outflow in the artesian aquifers is sufficient to maintain the fresh water-salt water interface some distance seaward of the barrier beaches. Ground-water withdrawals in 1960 averaged 39 mgd, most of which was returned to the ground through cesspools, leaching beds, and recharge wells; pumpage did not appreciably affect the natural water balance of the groundwater reservoir. If withdrawals continue to be artificially recharged, pumpage can be increased at least fivefold before consumptive losses materially reduce ground-water levels. However, if the area were completely sewered in the future, an adequate supply of ground water for a substantially increased population could not be obtained without (a) reducing the amount of ground water in storage in the reservoir or (b) recharging treated-sewage effluent.
New York↗
Chemical quality of surface waters, and sedimentation in the Grand River drainage basin, North and South Dakota
An investigation of the chemical quality of surface waters and of the sedimentation in the Grand River drainage basin by the U.S. Geological Survey began in 1946. The chemical quality of the water was studied to obtain information on the nature and amounts of dissolved solids in the streams and on the suitability of the water for domestic, industrial, and irrigation uses. Sedimentation was studied to determine the quantity of sediment that is transported by the streams, the particle sizes of the sediment, and the probable specific weight of the sediment when deposited in a reservoir. The basin is underlain by consolidated sedimentary rocks of Cretaceous and Tertiary age; along the Grand River and its tributaries thefe rocks are mantled by alluvium of Quaternary age. The Hell Creek and Fort Union Formations underlie about 4,700 of the 5,680 square miles of drainage area. The climate of the basin is semiarid and is characterized by tot summers and cold winters. Mean annual runoff is about 53 acre-feet per square mile of drainage area and is equal to about 7 percent of the mean annual precipitation. The highest streamflows on the Grand River and major- tributaries are caused by melting of snow in March and April. Streamflow is extremely variable from year to year. Most of the surface waters in the basin are of the sodium sulfate or sodium bicarbonate type. High percent sodium is typical of almost all the surface water's. The streamflow-quality patterns of the Grand River and its two forks are very similar; dissolved-solids concentration, which usually c'oes not exceed 3,000 ppm, is maximum during low-flow periods. The water in Shadehill Reservoir became stratified during the flood inflow of 1952; about 75 percent of the flood water, which was of good qutlity, passed through the reservoir. The quality of the water became almost uniform throughout the reservoir the latter part of July 1952. After the specific conductance became relatively stable in 1956, it fluctuated from abrut 1,300 to 1,600 micromhos per centimeter and was between 1,400 and 1,500 rnicromhos per centimeter most of the time. During the representative period July 1937 to June 1950 the quantity of dissolved solids passing the station near Wakpala was estimated to have been about 140,000 tons per year. Yields computed for different parts of the basin ranged from about 22 to 32 tons per square mile. Except for sulfate, concentrations of chemical constituents usually do not exceed the maximum concentrations recommended for domestic supplies. The rather high dissolved solids and hardness of most of the surface waters prevent the use of these waters for most industrial purposes unless the quality is improved by treatment. Classified for irrigation use according to its specific conductance and sodiumadsorption-ratio, the water stored in Shadehill Reservoir has a high salinity hazard and a medium sodium hazard. The water can be used safely forsustained irrigation on soils of the proposed irrigation unit if adequate teaching is practiced and if gypsum or some other calcium compound is added to the water or land during the high sodium cycle.
North Dakota, South Dakota↗