USGS Science⌕ Search

SEARCH · USGS Science

Results for “Journal of Geophysical Research - Oceans”

Search indexed USGS publications on groundwater, aquifers, geologic maps, mineral resources and earthquakes. Explore source records by subject and place.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 901 records · Page 50Linked to original sources
USGS2021

Characteristics of frequent dynamic triggering of microearthquakes in Southern California

Dynamic triggering of earthquakes has been reported at various fault systems. The triggered earthquakes are thought to be caused either directly by dynamic stress changes due to the passing seismic waves, or indirectly by other nonlinear processes that are initiated by the passing waves. Distinguishing these physical mechanisms is difficult because of the general lack of high‐resolution earthquake catalogs and robust means to quantitatively evaluate triggering responses, particularly, delayed responses. Here we use the high‐resolution Quake Template Matching catalog in Southern California to systematically evaluate teleseismic dynamic triggering patterns in the San Jacinto Fault Zone and the Salton Sea Geothermal Field from 2008 to 2017. We develop a new statistical approach to identify triggered cases, finding that approximately 1 out of every 5 global M w ≥ 6 earthquakes dynamically trigger microearthquakes in Southern California. The triggering responses include both instantaneous and delayed triggering, showing a highly heterogeneous pattern and indicating possible evolving triggering thresholds. We do not observe a clear peak ground velocity triggering threshold that can differentiate triggering earthquakes from non‐triggering events, but there are subtle differences in the frequency content that may possibly differentiate the earthquakes. In contrast to the depth distribution of background seismicity, the identified triggered earthquakes tend to concentrate at the edges of the seismogenic zones. Although instantaneously triggered earthquakes are likely a result of dynamic Coulomb stress changes, the cases of delayed dynamic triggering are best explained by nonlinear triggering processes, including cyclic material fatigue, accelerated transient creep, and stochastic frictional heterogeneities.

California↗
USGS2021

Comparative rhyolite systems: Inferences from vent patterns and eruptive episodicities: Eastern California and Laguna del Maule

Distilling my experience in having field mapped in detail the volcanic fields at Laguna del Maule and Long Valley and having worked out their time-volume-composition magmatic histories, I compare and contrast the postglacial rhyolites of the former with six multi-vent eruptive sequences of rhyolite in California. Compilations and discussions are made of volcanic-field areas and longevities, their compositions, vent distributions, individual batch and total volumes, eruptive episodicities, and tectonic influences. Growth of long-lived pluton-scale reservoirs of granitic crystal mush, from which the rhyolite melts separated, are interpreted in terms of conceptual models I published previously—(1) fundamentally basaltic transcrustal magmatism, 1981; (2) the deep-crustal MASH zone model, 1988; and (3) the rhyolite-melt crystal-mush model, 2001. Inferences and speculations are advanced concerning processes and timescales of rhyolite-melt separation from granitic mush and of prompt or long-delayed subsequent eruption.

California↗
USGS2021

The birth of a Hawaiian fissure eruption

Most basaltic explosive eruptions intensify abruptly, allowing little time to document processes at the start of eruption. One opportunity came with the initiation of activity from fissure 8 (F8) during the 2018 eruption on the lower East Rift Zone of Kīlauea, Hawaii. F8 erupted in four episodes. We recorded 28 min of high‐definition video during a 51‐min period, capturing the onset of the second episode on 5 May. From the videos, we were able to analyze the following in‐flight parameters: frequency and duration of explosions; ejecta heights; pyroclast exit velocities; in‐flight total mass and estimated mass eruption rates; and the in‐flight total grain size distributions. The videos record a transition from initial pulsating outgassing, via spaced, but increasingly rapid, discrete explosions, to quasisustained, unsteady fountaining. This transition accompanied waxing intensity (mass flux) of the F8 eruption. We infer that all activity was driven by a combination of the ascent of a coupled mixture of small bubbles and melt, and the buoyant rise of decoupled gas slugs and/or pockets. The balance between these two types of concurrent flow determined the exact form of the eruptive activity at any point in time, and changes to their relative contributions drove the transition we observed at early F8. Qualitative observations of other Hawaiian fountains at Kīlauea suggest that this physical model may apply more generally. This study demonstrates the value of in‐flight parameters derived from high‐resolution videos, which offer a rapid and highly time‐sensitive alternative to measurements based on sampling of deposits posteruption.

Island of Hawai'i↗
USGS2021

B-positive: A robust estimator of aftershock magnitude distribution in transiently incomplete catalogs

The earthquake magnitude-frequency distribution is characterized by the b -value, which describes the relative frequency of large versus small earthquakes. It has been suggested that changes in b -value after an earthquake can be used to discriminate whether that earthquake is part of a foreshock sequence or a more typical mainshock-aftershock sequence, with a decrease in b -value heralding a larger earthquake to come. However, the measurement of b -value during an active aftershock sequence is strongly biased by short-term incompleteness of the earthquake catalog and by data-windowing, and these biases have the same direction as the proposed signal. Here I develop a new estimator of the b- value that is insensitive to transient changes in catalog completeness and that does not require data windowing. The new estimator “ b -positive” is based on the positive-only subset of the differences in magnitude between successive earthquakes, which are described by a double-exponential (Laplace) distribution with the same b -value as the magnitude distribution itself. The b -positive estimator greatly improves the robustness of continuous b -value measurements during active earthquake sequences, as well as in historical catalogs with unknown or variable completeness. The new estimator confirms some of the observations of Gulia and Wiemer (2019), although at a reduced level, showing a decrease and recovery of the b -value during several recent foreshock sequences that cannot be attributed simply to measurement bias. However, the unbiased b -value changes may be too subtle to use in a real-time earthquake alarm system.

Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth↗
USGS2021

Heat flux from a vapor-dominated hydrothermal field beneath Yellowstone Lake

We report results from 149 heat flux measurements made over n ∼2-year interval at sites in and around a vapor-dominated geothermal field located at water depths of ∼100–120 m in Yellowstone Lake, Wyoming. Measurements of both in situ temperature and thermal conductivity as a function of depth were made with a 1 m probe via a remotely operated vehicle, and are combined to compute the vertical conductive heat flux. Inside the ∼55.5 × 10 3 m 2 bathymetric depression demarcating the vapor-dominated field, the median conductive flux is 13 W m −2 , with a conductive output of 0.72 MW. Outside the thermal field, the median conductive flux is 3.5 W m −2 . We observed 49 active vents inside the thermal field, with an estimated mass discharge rate of 56 kg s −1 , a median exit-fluid temperature of 132°C, and a total heat output of 29 MW. We find evidence for relatively weak secondary convection with a total output of 0.09 MW in thermal area lake floor sediments. Our data indicate that vapor beneath the thermal field is trapped by a low-permeability cap at a temperature of ∼189°C and a depth of ∼15 m below the lake floor. The thermal output of the Deep Hole is among the highest of any vapor-dominated field in Yellowstone, due in part to the high boiling temperatures associated with the elevated lake floor pressures.

Wyoming↗
USGS2021

Indicators of volcanic eruptions revealed by global M4+ earthquakes

Determining whether seismicity near volcanoes is due primarily to tectonic or magmatic processes is a challenging but critical endeavor for volcanic eruption forecasting and detection, especially at poorly monitored volcanoes. Global statistics on the occurrence and timing of earthquakes near volcanoes both within and outside of eruptive periods reveal patterns in eruptive seismicity that may improve our ability to discern magmatically driven seismicity from purely tectonic seismicity. In this paper, we catalog magnitude four and greater (M4+) earthquakes near volcanoes globally and compute statistics on their occurrence with respect to various eruptive and volcanic attributes, evaluating their utility as diagnostic indicators of eruptions. Using a 2‐week time window and a 30 km radius around the volcanoes, we find that 11% of eruptions are preceded by at least one M4+ earthquake, but only 1% of such earthquakes is followed by eruption. However, earthquakes located 5–15 km from the volcano, those with normal faulting mechanisms and/or large nondouble‐couple components, and those occurring as groups are more commonly associated with eruptions, providing significant forecasting utility in some cases. Similarly, certain volcanoes are more likely to exhibit such precursors, such as those with long repose periods. We illustrate the use of these data in eruption forecasting scenarios, including rapid identification of analogous earthquake sequences at other volcanoes. When integrated within the context of multiparametric, multidisciplinary probabilistic assessments of volcanic activity, global earthquake statistics can improve eruption forecasts, and our work provides a model for use on other rapidly expanding global volcanological databases.

Journal of Geophysical Research↗
USGS2021

Geometry of the décollement below eastern Bangladesh and implications for seismic hazard

Eastern Bangladesh sits on the seismically active Chittagong-Myanmar fold and thrust belt (CMFB), a north-trending accretionary wedge on the eastern side of the India-Eurasia collision. Earthquakes on the basal décollement and associated thrusts within the CMFB present a hazard to this densely populated region. In this study, we interpret 28 seismic reflection profiles from both published and unpublished sources to constrain the depth of the basal décollement. To convert profiles from the time domain to the depth domain, we integrate sonic log and seismic stacking velocity data to generate time-velocity relationships for different parts of the CMFB. Our analysis reveals that the décollement is ∼9 km deep in northeast and southeast Bangladesh, but shallows to ∼5 km in east-central Bangladesh. The décollement has an area of 7.25 × 10 4 km 2 (∼150 × 450 km), making it capable of an Mw 8.5 earthquake. However, the warped geometry of this fault might act as a rupture barrier were a large earthquake to occur on the décollement. Our combined velocity and fault model lay the groundwork for future studies to address seismic segmentation, ground shaking, and rupture modeling in the CMFB. Finally, we use our compiled data set to analyze the evolution of fold kinematics in the CMFB. We observe that folding style and failure mode varies, from mainly ductile deformation in the foreland to mainly brittle in the hinterland. The dual-failure modes within the CMFB support the hypothesis that a region with ductile deformation may still be capable of seismic behavior.

Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth↗
USGS2021

Sources of volcanic tremor associated with the summit caldera collapse during the 2018 east rift eruption of Kīlauea Volcano, Hawai'i

Volcanic tremor occurring at the beginning of the 2018 Kīlauea eruption is characterized using both seismic and tilt data recorded at the Kīlauea summit. An automatic seismic network-based approach detects several types of tremor including (a) 0.5–1 Hz long-period tremor preceding the eruption, located at the south-southwest edge of Halema'uma'u Crater and attributed to the quasi-steady radiation from a shallow hydrothermal system and (b) two sequences of gliding tremor at the beginning of the eruption, both with locations on the edges of the crater and within it. The first sequence is attributed to two swarms of low-amplitude regularly repeating earthquakes induced by the jerky motions of a cylindrical rock piston with radius of 325 m, height of 250 m, and mass of 2.07 × 10 11 kg, progressively intruding 12.3 m into the shallow hydrothermal system with volume of 10 8 m 3 and depth extent of 300 m. The second sequence is attributed to a gradual evolution in the properties of a bubbly magma within an east-striking dike below Halema'uma'u Crater, impacted by repeated roof collapses. A fluid-filled crack model points to a decrease in gas volume fraction from 4.22% to 1.6 × 10 −2 % in the magma filling the dike, and a model of gas retro-diffusion within the melt suggests a two orders of magnitude decrease in bubble number density from 7 × 10 8 m −3 down to 4 × 10 6 m −3 . Both models feature a quasi to totally degassed magma by May 26.

Hawaii↗
USGS2021

Earthquake source mechanisms and stress field variations associated with wastewater-induced seismicity in southern Kansas, USA

The strong increase of seismicity rates in the contiguous USA over the last 10 years is linked to the injection of huge amounts of wastewater from oil and gas production in unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs. We calculated 549 moment tensors of induced earthquakes ( M W ≤ 4.9) in southern Kansas to study their source mechanisms and their relation to injection activity. Seventeen percent of the events analyzed contained significant volumetric (ISO%) components, and these events mostly occurred near the two largest local earthquakes during the 4 months of largest active wastewater disposal. Mapping the local stress field, we determined that most of the region lies within a transtensional stress regime, with a maximum horizontal stress σ Hmax trending N75°E. In the epicentral area of the M W 4.9 Milan earthquake, the σ Hmax trend is rotated to about S80°E. Locally, two areas display a change in the stress field orientation with depth, from transtensional above 5.5 km depth to strike slip deeper in the basement. Relating the resolved fault geometries to the obtained local stress field orientation, we find that most of the activated fault planes were optimally oriented to the current stress field and thus small stress perturbations caused by the water injection could lead to failure.

Kansas↗
USGS2020

Ancient Martian aeolian sand dune deposits recorded in the stratigraphy of Valles Marineris and implications for past climates

Aeolian sediment transport, deposition, and erosion have been ongoing throughout Mars's history. This record of widespread aeolian processes is preserved in landforms and geologic units that retain important clues about past environmental conditions including wind patterns. In this study we describe landforms within Melas Chasma, Valles Marineris, that occur in distinct groups with linear to crescentic shapes, arranged with a characteristic wavelength; some possess slope profiles analogous to modern sand dunes yet show evidence for lithification. Based on the features' dimensions, asymmetry, and spatial patterns relative to modern equivalents, we interpret these landforms to be two classes of aeolian bedforms: decameter‐scale megaripples and sand dunes. The presence of superposed erosional features and depositional units indicates that these landforms were cemented and likely ancient. Melas paleodunes are found atop Hesperian‐aged layered deposits, but we estimate them to be younger, likely lithified in the Amazonian period. Although a range of degradation was observed, some paleodunes are >10 m tall and maintain steep lee sides (>25°), an uncommon scenario for terrestrial examples as other geologic processes lead to dune obliteration. The preserved paleobedform geometries are largely consistent with those of modern aeolian indicators, suggesting no major shifts in wind regime or contributing boundary conditions. Finally, we propose that their appearance and context require sequential periods of dune migration, stabilization following catastrophic burial, cementation, differential erosion, exposure, and burial. The presence of wholly preserved duneforms appears to be more common on Mars compared to the Earth and may signal something important about Martian landscape evolution.

Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets↗
USGS2020

Evidence for a diagenetic origin of Vera Rubin Ridge, Gale Crater, Mars: Summary and synthesis of Curiosity's exploration campaign

This paper provides an overview of the Curiosity rover's exploration at Vera Rubin ridge (VRR) and summarizes the science results. VRR is a distinct geomorphic feature on lower Aeolis Mons (informally known as Mount Sharp) that was identified in orbital data based on its distinct texture, topographic expression, and association with a hematite spectral signature. Curiosity conducted extensive remote sensing observations, acquired data on dozens of contact science targets, and drilled three outcrop samples from the ridge, as well as one outcrop sample immediately below the ridge. Our observations indicate that strata composing VRR were deposited in a predominantly lacustrine setting and are part of the Murray formation. The rocks within the ridge are chemically in family with underlying Murray formation strata. Red hematite is dispersed throughout much of the VRR bedrock, and this is the source of the orbital spectral detection. Gray hematite is also present in isolated, gray‐colored patches concentrated toward the upper elevations of VRR, and these gray patches also contain small, dark Fe‐rich nodules. We propose that VRR formed when diagenetic event(s) preferentially hardened rocks, which were subsequently eroded into a ridge by wind. Diagenesis also led to enhanced crystallization and/or cementation that deepened the ferric‐related spectral absorptions on the ridge, which helped make them readily distinguishable from orbit. Results add to existing evidence of protracted aqueous environments at Gale crater and give new insight into how diagenesis shaped Mars' rock record.

Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets↗
USGS2021

A rock record of complex aeolian bedforms in a Hesperian desert landscape: The Stimson formation as exposed in the Murray Buttes, Gale Crater, Mars

Lithified aeolian strata encode information about ancient planetary surface processes and the climate during deposition. Decoding these strata provides insight regarding past sediment transport processes, bedform kinematics, depositional landscape, and the prevailing climate. Deciphering these signatures requires a detailed analysis of sedimentary architecture to reconstruct dune morphology, motion, and the conditions that enabled their formation. Here, we show that a distinct sandstone unit exposed in the foothills of Mount Sharp, Gale crater, Mars, records the preserved expression of compound aeolian bedforms that accumulated in a large dune field. Analysis of Mastcam images of the Stimson formation shows that it consists of cross‐stratified sandstone beds separated by a hierarchy of erosive bounding surfaces formed during dune migration. The presence of two orders of surfaces with distinct geometrical relations reveals that the Stimson‐era landscape consisted of large dunes (draas) with smaller, superimposed dunes migrating across their lee slopes. Analysis of cross‐lamination and subset bounding surface geometries indicate a complex wind regime that transported sediment toward the north, constructing oblique dunes. This dune field was a direct product of the regional climate and the surface processes active in Gale crater during the fraction of the Hesperian Period recorded by the Stimson formation. The environment was arid, supporting a large aeolian dune field; this setting contrasts with earlier humid depositional episodes, recorded by the lacustrine sediments of the Murray formation (also Hesperian). Such fine‐scale reconstruction of landscapes on the ancient surface of Mars is important to understanding the planet’s past climate and habitability.

Journal of Geophysical Research - Planets↗
USGS2021

Mars: Abundant recurring slope lineae (RSL) following the planet-encircling dust event (PEDE) of 2018

Recurring slope lineae (RSL) are dark linear markings on Mars that regrow annually and likely originate from the flow of either liquid water or granular material. Following the great dust storm (or planet-encircling dust event, PEDE) of Mars year (MY) 34, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter/High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment has seen many more candidate RSL than in typical Mars years. They have been imaged at more than 285 unique locations from August 2018 (when the atmosphere was clearing as the PEDE decayed) to August 2019, about half (157) of which are locations where RSL have not been documented previously. In MY34, 150 active RSL sites were identified in the southern middle latitudes (SML, -60° to -30°), whereas an average of 36 active sites were observed in each previous year (MY28–33). Post-PEDE RSL are also present during southern summer over a wider range of latitude, slope aspect, and L s (areocentric longitude of the sun) than in prior years. These RSL sites usually show evidence for recent dust deposition: obscuration of relatively dark areas, an overall brighter and redder surface than in prior years, and dust devil tracks, which indicate dust lifting by several mechanisms. We speculate that dust-lifting processes may initiate and sustain RSL activity. The RSL may form from flows of dust (perhaps clumped) and/or sand that is destabilized by dust movement or directly mobilized by dust devils. If this is the case, then the otherwise puzzling recurrence and year-to-year variability of RSL activity can be at least partly explained. The dust replenishment varies from year to year, which could explain interannual variations in RSL activity.

Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets↗
USGS2020

Compositional layering in Io driven by magmatic segregation and volcanism

The compositional evolution of volcanic bodies like Io is not well understood. Magmatic segregation and volcanic eruptions transport tidal heat from Io's interior to its surface. Several observed eruptions appear to be extremely high temperature (≥ 1600 K), suggesting either very high degrees of melting, refractory source regions, or intensive viscous heating on ascent. To address this ambiguity, we develop a model that couples crust and mantle dynamics to a simple compositional system. We analyse the model to investigate chemical structure and evolution. We demonstrate that magmatic segregation and volcanic eruptions lead to stratification of the mantle, the extent of which depends on how easily high temperature melts from the more refractory lower mantle can migrate upwards. We propose that Io's highest temperature eruptions originate from this lower mantle region, and that such eruptions act to limit the degree of compositional stratification.

Journal of Geophysical Research↗
USGS2021

Widespread exposures of extensive clean shallow ice in the mid-latitudes of Mars

Although ice in the Martian midlatitudes is typically covered by a layer of dust or regolith, it is exposed in some locations by fresh impact craters or in erosional scarps. In both cases, the exposed ice is massive or excess ice with a low lithic content. We find that erosional scarps occur between 50° and 61° north and south latitude and that they are concentrated in and near Milankovič crater in the northern hemisphere and southeast of the Hellas basin in the southern hemisphere. These may represent locations of particularly thick or clean bodies of ice. Pits created by retreat of the scarps represent sublimation-thermokarst landforms that evolve in a manner distinct from other ice-loss landforms on Mars. New impact craters reveal that clean subsurface ice is widespread at middle- and high-latitudes in both hemispheres at depths less than 1 m. Both the depth to ice and the ice content appear to exhibit significant variability over tens to hundreds of meters. The lowest-latitude exposed ice is near 39°N and is at the edge of a region where impact exposures between 40° and 50°N are common, consistent with other indications of a high ice content. This lowest-latitude ice may be currently unstable and subliming. Impact craters on lineated valley fill excavate ice blocks that may represent the top of debris-covered glacial ice. Together, these landforms indicate widespread, clean subsurface ice at middle-latitudes on Mars. The distribution and properties of this ice could provide information about past climate conditions.

Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets↗
USGS2021

Self-limitation of sand storage in a bedrock-canyon river arising from the interaction of flow and grain size

Bedrock-canyon rivers tend to be supply limited because they are efficient transporters of sediment and not because the upstream supply of sediment is small. A byproduct of this supply limitation is that the finer alluvium stored in these rivers has shorter residence times and smaller volumes than in alluvial rivers. To improve our understanding of disequilibrium sediment transport and its effect on sand storage in bedrock-canyon rivers, we undertook a 20-year study, synthesized herein, of the Colorado River in Grand Canyon. Despite the large loads for which it was renowned, this river exhibited evidence of natural sand-supply limitation and became the perfect natural laboratory for studying sand transport in a bedrock canyon after upstream dam construction exacerbated this supply limitation. During our study, we made and analyzed an unprecedented ∼2.5 million measurements of the suspended and bed sediment. Results indicate that sand storage in this bedrock-canyon river is self-limiting owing to the physical controls of flow and grain size causing negative feedbacks that likely also operate in other bedrock-canyon rivers. Following episodic tributary floods that supply finer sand, sand migrates quickly downstream in the form of a wave in which large systematic changes in bed-sand grain size occur. These grain-size changes cause discharge-independent systematic changes in suspended-sand concentration in excess of a factor of 20. Although the tributary supply of sand increases the amount of sand storage, it also greatly increases the downstream sand transport by causing bed-sand fining, thus limiting the residence time and volume of sand storage.

Arizona↗
USGS2020

Measuring basal force fluctuations of debris flows using seismic recordings and empirical green's functions

We present a novel method for measuring the fluctuating basal normal and shear stresses of debris flows by using along‐channel seismic recordings. Our method couples a simple parameterization of a debris flow as a seismic source with direct measurements of seismic path effects using empirical Green's functions generated with a force hammer. We test this method using two large‐scale (8 and 10 m 3 ) experimental flows at the U.S. Geological Survey debris‐flow flume that were recorded by dozens of three‐component seismic sensors. The seismically derived basal stress fluctuations compare well in amplitude and timing to independent force plate measurements within the valid frequency range (15–50 Hz). We show that although the high‐frequency seismic signals provide band‐limited forcing information, there are systematic relations between the fluctuating stresses and independently measured flow properties, especially mean basal shear stress and flow thickness. However, none of the relationships are simple, and since the flow properties also correlate with one another, we cannot isolate a single factor that relates in a simple way to the fluctuating forces. Nevertheless, our observations, most notably the gradually declining ratio of fluctuating to mean basal stresses during flow passage and the distinctive behavior of the coarse, unsaturated flow front, imply that flow style may be a primary control on the conversion of translational to vibrational kinetic energy. This conversion ultimately controls the radiation of high‐frequency seismic waves. Thus, flow style may provide the key to revealing the nature of the relationship between fluctuating forces and other flow properties.

Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface↗
USGS2020

Sediment connectivity: A framework for analyzing coastal sediment transport pathways

Connectivity provides a framework for analyzing coastal sediment transport pathways, building on conceptual advances in graph theory from other scientific disciplines. Connectivity schematizes sediment pathways as a directed graph (i.e., a set of nodes and links). This study presents a novel application of graph theory and connectivity metrics like modularity and centrality to coastal sediment dynamics, exemplified here using Ameland Inlet in the Netherlands. We divide the study site into geomorphic cells (i.e., nodes) and then quantify sediment transport between these cells (i.e., links) using a numerical model. The system of cells and fluxes between them is then schematized in a network described by an adjacency matrix. Network metrics like link density, asymmetry, and modularity quantify system‐wide connectivity. The degree, strength, and centrality of individual nodes identify key locations and pathways throughout the system. For instance, these metrics indicate that under strictly tidal forcing, sand originating near shore predominantly bypasses Ameland Inlet via the inlet channels, whereas sand on the deeper foreshore mainly bypasses the inlet via the outer delta shoals. Connectivity analysis can also inform practical management decisions about where to place sand nourishments, the fate of nourishment sand, or how to monitor locations vulnerable to perturbations. There are still open challenges associated with quantifying connectivity at varying space and time scales and the development of connectivity metrics specific to coastal systems. Nonetheless, connectivity provides a promising technique for predicting the response of our coasts to climate change and the human adaptations it provokes.

Ameland Inlet↗