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USGS2012

Northern East Pacific Rise: Magnetic anomaly and bathymetric framework

The oceanic crust in the eastern Pacific between 7°N and 30°N and east of 127°W contains a fairly complete history of the spreading centers associated with the East Pacific Rise since 25 m.y. B.P. (late Oligocene). In this paper, we have summarized the seafloor spreading magnetic-anomaly data and the bathymetric data that reflect the record of this tectonic history. The well-defined magnetic lineations north of the Clarion fracture zone, in the mouth of the Gulf of California, and on the east flank of the East Pacific Rise (EPR) are carefully examined and used to provide a guide for interpreting the spreading pattern between the Clarion and Clipperton fracture zones, southward of the Rivera fracture zone over the Mathematician Ridge, and over the entire EPR east of the Mathematician Ridge between the Rivera and Siqueiros fracture zones. The bathymetric data provide a trace of the fracture zone pattern in each of the above mentioned areas. The fracture zone bathymetry and the seafloor spreading magnetic lineations on the EPR south of the Rivera fracture zone have a distinctive fanning pattern caused by close poles of rotation and plate boundary reorganizations. All these data provide a good record of the plate reorganizations in the middle Miocene at magnetic anomaly 5 A time (12.5 to 11 m.y. B.P.), in the late Miocene at magnetic anomaly 3′−4 time (6.5 m.y. B.P.), and in the Pliocene at magnetic anomaly 2′−3 time (3.5 m.y. B.P.). Several abandoned spreading centers, including the Mathematician Ridge, were left behind as a result of these reorganizations. The Mathematician Ridge is shown to be a set of ridges and trough whose origin is related to the tectonic activity associated with each of the above mentioned reorganizations since anomaly 5A.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗

USGS2012

The sea slope problem revisited

Discrepancies in sea surface topography based on comparisons between the results of steric leveling and repeated geodetic levelings have identified what is known as the ‘sea slope problem.’ This problem is actually twofold: (1) the sea surface relief based on steric leveling differs significantly from that based on geodetic leveling along several generally north-south coasts, and (2) successively propagated levelings between several widely separated tide stations indicate that the stationary sea slope seemingly has been changing with time, whereas differenced sea level means between these stations indicate that the sea surface relief has remained virtually invariant during the same intervals. Reexamination of the three reported discrepancies between geodetically and sterically determined sea slopes indicates that the Australian example is based on leveling of a quality inappropriate to the comparison. The discrepancy developed along the Atlantic coast of the United States is limited to the reach between Portsmouth–Hampton Roads, Virginia, and Key West, Florida, where the accuracy of steric leveling may be especially vulnerable owing to the dynamic effects of the Gulf Stream. Reconsideration of the example along the Pacific coast of the United States indicates that the various discrepancies are due chiefly to intrasurvey movement and resultant distortion of geodetically defined height differences between tide stations. Agreement between the results of steric and geodetic leveling along tectonically inactive north-south coasts devoid of strong boundary currents is generally good. This observation supports the conclusions (1) that any directionally dependent systematic error in geodetic leveling is measurably insignificant and (2) that where allowance is made for the possible effects of major boundary currents or intrasurvey movement during levelings between tide stations, the sea slope problem tends to vanish.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗

USGS2012

Wandering terranes in southern Alaska: The Aleutia Microplate and implications for the Bering Sea

Paleomagnetic and geological data suggest that much of southern Alaska is a collage of tectonostratigraphic terranes which originated in Mesozoic time at paleolatitudes far south of their present position. The time of ‘docking’ of the terranes against cratonic Alaska is critical to defining their amalgamated size and extent during their northward motion as well as their role in the evolution of the Bering Sea. One of the largest of the tectonostratigraphic terranes, the Peninsular terrane of south central and southwestern Alaska, extends offshore along the outer Bering Sea continental margin (Beringia). Paleomagnetic data suggest that this terrane has moved northward through all of Cenozoic time, but geologic data imply that the terrane had accreted to Alaska by the end of the Mesozoic. In early Cenozoic time the eastern part of the Aleutian arc appears to have been superimposed on the Peninsular terrane, and postulated northward Cenozoic motion of the terrane would therefore have required northward motion of the arc. Two accretion models, based on docking times for terranes in Alaska, are proposed, and they illustrate that large areas of the abyssal Bering Sea, the Alaska Peninsula, the Aleutian arc, and the Beringian continental margin may be part of a superterrane or microplate called Aleutia (microplate as defined by Beck et al. (1980), i.e., a microplate is a displaced segment of lithosphere that has crustal roots, whereas a superterrane is an amalgamation of terranes which may or may not be rootless). Model A implies that the Aleutian arc developed in situ on the southern edge of Aleutia after the microplate had docked. In model B, the final docking time of the Peninsular terrane is late Cenozoic, which implies that the Aleutia microplate encompasses a mammoth area that includes parts of southern Alaska, the Alaska Peninsula, the southern Beringian margin, the abyssal Bering Sea (Kula plate), and the Aleutian arc. If model A is correct, the docking time of the Peninsular terrane is late Mesozoic or earliest Tertiary. The Aleutia microplate in this model is made up solely of the abyssal Bering Sea (Kula plate), which presumably docked at the same time or slightly after the Peninsular terrane accreted against Alaska. If model B is correct, that is, if the Aleutia collided with nuclear Alaska during the Cenozoic, then a late Cenozoic suture zone, the vestige of a large open sea that must have closed between Aleutia and Alaska, must exist in south central and southwest Alaska. Either evidence for Cenozoic closure and suturing has been obliterated in Alaska or the inferences of Cenozoic terrane motion derived from paleomagnetic data are suspect.

Alaska↗

USGS2012

Earthquakes in the Orozco transform zone: seismicity, source mechanisms, and tectonics

As part of the Rivera Ocean Seismic Experiment, a network of ocean bottom seismometers and hydrophones was deployed in order to determine the seismic characteristics of the Orozco transform fault in the central eastern Pacific. We present hypocentral locations and source mechanisms for 70 earthquakes recorded by this network. All epicenters are within the transform region of the Orozco Fracture Zone and clearly delineate the active plate boundary. About half of the epicenters define a narrow line of activity parallel to the spreading direction and situated along a deep topographic trough that forms the northern boundary of the transform zone (region 1). Most focal depths for these events are very shallow, within 4 km of the seafloor; several well-determined focal depths, however, are as great as 7 km. No shallowing of seismic activity is observed as the rise-transform intersection is approached; to the contrary, the deepest events are within 10 km of the intersection. First motion polarities for most of the earthquakes in region 1 are compatible with right-lateral strike slip faulting along a nearly vertical plane, striking parallel to the spreading direction. Another zone of activity is observed in the central part of the transform (region 2). The apparent horizontal and vertical distribution of activity in this region is more scattered than in the first, and the first motion radiation patterns of these events do not appear to be compatible with any known fault mechanism. Pronounced lateral variations in crustal velocity structure are indicated for the transform region from refraction data and measurements of wave propagation directions. The effect of this lateral heterogeneity on hypocenters and fault plane solutions is evaluated by tracing rays through a three-dimensional velocity grid. While findings for events in region 1 are not significantly affected, in region 2, epicentral mislocations of up to 10 km and azimuthal deflections of up to 45° may result from assuming a laterally homogeneous velocity structure. When corrected for the effects of lateral heterogeneity, the epicenters and fault plane solutions for earthquakes in region 2 are compatible with predominantly normal faulting along a topographic trough trending NW–SE; the focal depths, however, are poorly constrained. These results suggest an en echelon spreading center or leaky transform regime in the central transform region.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗

USGS2012

Precision of geodolite surveys: A reply to Jackson and Cheng

Jackson and Cheng have suggested that the changes in areal dilatation measured in Geodolite surveys by the U.S. Geological Survey may be simply an artifact of the measuring system. Although systematic error could conceivably account for the observed excursions in dilatation, we maintain that the specific criticisms by Jackson and Cheng are incorrect: the excursions in dilatation cannot be attributed to the offset correction nor to proportional error associated with temperature. The absence of both errors is demonstrated by using data that are particularly sensitive to the two effects.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗

USGS2012

Experimental deformation of polycrystalline H2O ice at high pressure and low temperature: Preliminary results

Interest in the mechanical properties of water ice under the conditions in which it exists in the outer solar system has motivated the development and use of a new high‐pressure, low‐temperature triaxial deformation apparatus. Constant displacement rate tests on 70 samples of pure polycrystalline water ice have been performed at temperatures 77≤≤258 K, confining pressures 0.1≤≤350 MPa, and strain rates 3.5×10≤ ≤3.5×10 s. In most cases, the ice polymorph tested was ice . Both brittle and ductile behavior have been observed. Brittle behavior of ice, promoted by lower pressure, lower temperature, and higher strain rate, is analogous to that in rocks, with the important exception that brittle fracture strength becomes independent of confining pressure above 50 MPa pressure and the fracture angle is approximately 45° to the loading direction (i.e., the coefficient of internal friction is approximately zero). Ductile flow, the predominant behavior in our tests at ≥195 K, follows a law of form = σ exp (−*/) (σ is stress; is the gas constant; , * are material constants). Three sets of material constants are required to fit the data, with changes in sets (or mechanisms) occurring near 243 K and 195 K. The value of remains near 4 throughout the measured ductile field, but * drops from 91 to 61 to 31 /mole as temperature decreases. The maximum brittle strength measured was 171 MPa; the maximum ductile strength measured was 91 MPa. At confining pressures near the phase transition pressure of ice → ice II, the ductile strength is observed to drop dramatically. Some overlap with previous work occurs at higher temperatures and lower pressures. Agreement with present work is generally good, both quantitatively in the values of and *, and qualitatively in the mechanism of deformation. Although the ductile strengths measured here are somewhat higher than expected on the basis of extrapolations of previous work, the low value of * at <195 K indicates that the ice layer on icy bodies in the solar system is much weaker than has generally been predicted.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗

USGS2012

Geomagnetic paleointensities from excursion sequences in lavas on Oahu, Hawaii

Paleomagnetic data demonstrating three late Tertiary excursions in the direction of the geomagnetic field recorded in sequences of basaltic lavas on the island of Oahu, Hawaii were published by R. R. Doell and G. B. Dalrymple in 1973. We have determined geomagnetic paleointensities by the Thelliers' method for 14 lavas from the three sites. During these experiments, considerable difficulty was encountered because of the presence of titanomaghemite in many lavas and the contamination of natural remanent magnetization by lightning in many others. Moreover, we often observed the production of spurious high‐temperature chemical remanent magnetization during the Thellier experiments. An analysis of this particularly troublesome problem is presented. Two of the sites showed low paleointensities associated with angular departures of the paleomagnetic field direction from that of a geocentric axial dipole, which suggests that these excursions represent aborted reversals or fragments of reversals. At the third site, however, the paleointensity did not become low as the field diverged. This excursion may reflect the variation of a large nondipole source near Hawaii.

Hawaii↗

USGS2012

A seismic refraction survey of the Imperial Valley Region, California

The U.S. Geological Survey conducted an extensive seismic refraction survey in the Imperial Valley region of California in 1979. The Imperial Valley is located in the Salton Trough, an active rift between the Pacific and North American plates. Forty shots fired at seven shot points were recorded by 100 portable seismic instruments at typical spacing of 0.5–1 km. More than 1300 recording locations were occupied, and more than 3000 usable seismograms were obtained. We analyzed five profiles using a standard ray‐tracing program, constructed a contour map of reduced travel times from our most widely recorded shot point, and modeled an existing gravity profile across the Salton Trough. Results are itemized: (1) All models have in common a sedimentary layer ( V p = 1.8–5.0 km/s), a “transition zone” ( V p = 5.0–5.65 km/s), a basement ( V p = 5.65 km/s in the Imperial Valley, 5.9 km/s on the bordering mesas), and subbasement ( V p = 7.2 km/s). (2) The sedimentary layer ranges in thickness along the axis of the Salton Trough from 3.7 km (Salton Sea) to 4.8 km (U.S.‐Mexican border). On the bordering mesas it is quite variable in thickness. (3) The “transition” zone is about 1 km thick in most places. In the Imperial Valley there are no marked velocity discontinuities in this zone between the sedimentary layer and basement. On the bordering mesas, however, there is a discontinuity at the top of this zone. (4) There are apparently two types of basement. On the bordering mesas, basement is crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks. In the Imperial Valley, basement is mostly lower‐greenshist‐facies sedimentary rocks, based primarily on the smooth transition in character from sediment to basement arrivals, the low value of basement velocity, and the fact that deep (4 km) wells in the valley penetrate only the upper part of the known Cenozoic stratigraphic column for the Salton Trough. (5) The subbasement, or intermediate crustal layer, ranges in depth along the axis of the Salton Trough from 16 km (Salton Sea) to 10 km (U.S.‐Mexican border). Gravity modeling requires that this layer deepen and/or pinch out beneath the bordering mesas and mountain ranges. Based on its high velocity and the presence of intrusive basaltic rocks in the sedimentary section in the Imperial Valley, the subbasement is thought to be a mafic intrusive complex similar to oceanic middle crust. (6) Several structures are seen that affect basement, transition zone, and deeper parts of the sedimentary layer. They include a scarp along the Imperial fault, as much as 1 km down to the northeast, and a scarp passing roughly along the topographic boundary between the Imperial Valley and the bordering mesa to the west, as much as 3½ km down to the east. We interpret the latter scarp to be the suture, or rift boundary, between the older crystalline basement on the mesa and the younger metasedimentary basement in the Imperial Valley. (7) On a contour map of reduced travel time from our most widely recorded shot point, subtle patches of early arrivals among otherwise late arrivals in the central Imperial Valley correlate well with known geothermal resource areas having reservoir temperatures of more than 150°C. Apparently the Salton Trough is a location where new crust is being generated. As the rift opens, mafic intrusive rocks fill it from below as sedimentary rocks fill it from above. Rifting and intrusion produce high heat flow that metamorphoses the sedimentary rocks to shallow depth (metasedimentary basement in the Imperial Valley) and thus consolidates the new crust.

California↗

USGS2012

Regional deformation near Palmdale, California, 1973-1983 (USA)

The Tehachapi trilateration network spans the intersection of the San Andreas and Garlock faults in southern California in the “Big Bend” region of the San Andreas fault. Analysis of data from 1973–1983 shows strain differences between the northwest and southeast regions of the network and slip at depth on both faults. The Palmdale network, spanning the San Andreas fault entirely within the Tehachapi network, showed increases of about 1 μstrain in both east‐west and north‐south extension in late 1979. The Tehachapi strains also jumped at this time, but the magnitude of the increase was only about one third that of Palmdale. The principal strain rates for Tehachapi over the time interval 1973–1983 are μstrain/yr and μstrain/yr, with the 1 axis directed N76°E. Strains were also computed for two subregions. The principal strain rates for the southeast Tehachapi region are μstrain/yr and μStrain/yr, with the 1 axis directed N73°E. This result differs significantly from the principal strain rates at Palmdale ( μstrain/yr, μstrain/yr, with the 1 axis directed N71°E). For the northwest Tehachapi region, μstrain/yr and μstrain/yr, with the 1 axis directed N93°E.

California↗

USGS2012

A seismic refraction study of the Oregon Cascades

A 275‐km‐long reversed refraction profile in the Oregon Cascades, two shallow earthquakes of magnitude 5 in southern Washington, a shallow earthquake of magnitude 4.6 in northern California, and a previously published analysis of the Bouguer gravity field are used to develop a crustal P wave velocity model for the Oregon Cascades. Travel time analysis of the refraction profile indicates a crustal structure characterized by surface layers with P wave velocities that vary from 2.9 to 5.2 km/s and thicknesses that vary from 2.5 to 5.0 km, upper crustal velocities of 6.1 to 6.5 km/s between the depths of 3 and 29 km, lower crustal velocities near 7.0 km/s between the depths of 29 and 44 km, and a mantle reflector at a depth of 44 km. Comparison with synthetic seismograms supports this structure and shows that the lower crustal and Mono transitions can be better modeled by continuous velocity gradients than by first‐order discontinuities. Arrival times from two shallow earthquakes in southern Washington in 1981 across 14 telemetry stations in the Oregon Cascades show an apparent velocity of 7.62 km/s. On the basis of a previously published gravity analysis, the mean north‐south component of the dip to the crust‐mantle boundary is estimated at 1° down dip to the south. The apparent velocity from the earthquakes and the dip estimate from gravity indicate that the true Pn velocity is 7.70 km/s. Arrival times from a shallow earthquake in northern California in 1978 across telemetry stations in the Washington Cascades are consistent with this model and indicate that the upper mantle velocity reaches 8.20 km/s at a depth of approximately 100 km.

Oregon↗

USGS2012

Magnetic properties of the Bay of Islands ophiolite suite and implications for the magnetization of oceanic crust

Rock magnetic properties, opaque mineralogy, and degree of metamorphism were determined for 101 unoriented samples from the North Arm and Blow-Me-Down massifs of the Bay of Islands ophiolite complex, Newfoundland. The weathered and metamorphosed extrusive basalt samples have a weak, secondary magnetization arising from oxidation and exsolution of ilmenite of unknown origin. The initial magnetization of the underlying sheeted dike complex appears to have been destroyed by hydrothermal alteration soon after formation. The magnetic intensity of the gabbroic samples increases as the degree of alteration increases, with the highly altered upper metagabbros having an average intensity of 3×10 −3 emu/c 3 . Because magnetization of the metagabbro samples is related to nonpervasive, variable alteration, these crustal units are unlikely to make a significant contribution to lineated magnetic anomalies. A compilation of our results and other studies suggests a model in which oceanic crust magnetization results from an upper extrusive basalt source layer, roughly 600 m thick, with no contribution from a deeper source layer recognizable from these Bay of Islands data.

Newfoundland↗

USGS2012

Introduction and digest to the Special Issue on Chemical Effects of Water on the Deformation and Strengths of Rocks

The important role of pore pressure in promoting such brittle processes as cataclasis, hydraulic fracturing, large‐scale faulting, and earthquakes within the crust is widely accepted in geology and geophysics [, 1957; , 1959; , 1958; ., 1963; , 1968; ., 1968; ., 1976; , 1973, 1980; , 1981]. Provided that fluid pressure is fully communicated with rock pore space, the effective normal stresses that control crack growth, macroscopic fracture, and friction are reduced by the magnitude of the fluid pressui'e. Beyond this physical effect of pore fluids, there are chemical effects of water on the strength of rocks that are also important in governing differential stresseg and flow in the continental crust. Some of these chemical effects of water on rock deformation have long been recognized.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗

USGS2012

Experimental deformation of topaz crystals: Possible embrittlement by intracrystalline water

Crystallographically oriented single‐crystal prisms of gem quality topaz (composition AlSiO (OH− F) where x = 0.04 ± 0.01) were deformed at a confining pressure of 1.50 GPa, a temperature of 800°C, and a strain rate of 2×10 s. Under nearly identical conditions, all crystals of anhydrous rock‐forming minerals that have been tested to date, such as olivine, quartz, feldspars, pyroxenes, and refractory oxides, deform plastically; in contrast, our topaz crystals failed by brittle fracture regardless of the orientation of the compression direction. No optical evidence for plastic deformation was detected. Another suite of experiments with compression perpendicular to the (001) cleavage at = 100°–950°C and a strain rate of 2×10 s displayed two regimes of behavior: (1) at >400°C, fracture strength was independent of temperature, and fracture occurred on one or two surfaces parallel to {103}; (2) at <400°C, the fracture strength increased rapidly with decreasing temperature, no macroscopic stress drop was observed, and many closely spaced conjugate fractures formed on (103) and (103). The anomalous brittleness of topaz compared to anhydrous silicate and oxide crystals indicates that intracrystalline “water” plays a role in the embrittlement. We suggest that water within the topaz crystals promotes fracture in ways similar to the mechanisms of slow crack growth aided by environmental moisture.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗

USGS2012

Effects of compression direction on the plasticity and rheology of hydrolytically weakened synthetic quartz crystals at atmospheric pressure

A hydrothermally grown synthetic quartz crystal with 370±60 ppm hydroxyl impurity was cut into right rectangular prisms in eight crystallographic orientations. We compressed the prisms under constant axial force corresponding to a uniaxial stress of 140.0±0.5 MPa, and temperatures of 510° and 750°C. All but one of the samples sustained permanent axial strains of 2–3%. We established the operating slip systems from specimen shape change, slip bands and dislocation etch pits on polished surfaces, crystallographic orientation changes, stress optical features in thin sections, and transmission electron microscopy. The observed creep behavior and plasticity divided the samples into three groups: (1) Crystals compressed at 45° to [0001] and [ ] and those compressed ⊥( ) and ⊥( ) deformed principally by slip parallel to [0001]. Creep rates were relatively high and were not strongly sensitive to test temperature. Dislocation arrays approximately parallel to ( ) are common. Dislocation loops are elongate parallel to [0001], indicating that the edge segments were more mobile than the screw segments. (2) The second group of samples were loaded normal to [0001] in three orientations: ⊥( ), ⊥( ), and at 45° to ( ). These samples deformed primarily by { } 〈a〉 slip with some evidence for secondary slip on the other systems. They were more creep resistant than the first group and displayed a much higher sensitivity of creep rate to test temperature. Dislocation loops are very elongate parallel to [0001], indicating that the screw dislocation segments were much more mobile than the edge segments. (3) A sample compressed parallel to [0001] at 750°C crept at a barely detectable rate (∼10 s) and no optical scale slip features were observed. These results confirm our earlier work on one orientation each from groups 1 and 2, which indicated a strong creep anisotropy for this same crystal. This creep anisotropy parallels a remarkably similar anisotropy in the diffusivity of impurities in quartz, suggesting a causal relationship between impurity diffusion and creep associated with hydrolytic weakening. Appendix Tables A1‐A5 are available with entire article on microfiche. Order from American Geophysical Union, 2000 Florida Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20009. Document B84‐004; $2.50. Payment must accompany order.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗

USGS2012

Deformation in the White Mountain seismic gap, California-Nevada, 1972-1982

A 100×40 km trilateration network extending from Bishop, California, to near Hawthorne, Nevada, crosses the east end of the Long Valley caldera, site of renewed magma inflation in the 1979–1980 interval, and spans most of the White Mountain seismic gap. The network was surveyed in 1972, 1973, 1976, 1979, 1980, and 1982. The 1980 survey may be contaminated by a scale error. In addition, leveling surveys across the caldera have been run in 1932, 1957, 1975, 1980, 1982, and 1983. Interpretation of the deformation is complicated by the occurrence of the May 1980 Mammoth Lakes earthquake sequence (four earthquakes M L ≥6) at the south edge of the caldera as well as other moderate earthquakes within the White Mountain seismic gap. The vertical deformation is largely accounted for by 0.10‐ to 0.15‐km 3 expansion of a spherical magma chamber 8–10 km beneath the resurgent dome within the Long Valley caldera sometime between July 1979 and September 1980 with an additional expansion of perhaps 0.05 km 3 between September 1980 and July 1982. Some additional sources of deformation within the aftershock zone of the Mammoth Lakes earthquakes seem to be required to explain the horizontal deformation. We show that right‐lateral slip on vertical faults extending WNW from each of the three largest earthquakes in the Mammoth Lakes sequence provides the required additional deformation, but this solution is by no means unique. There are simply too few data to define the rather complex deformation that apparently occurred within the aftershock zone. There is little doubt, however, that inflation of a magma chamber beneath the resurgent dome within the Long Valley caldera was involved in the deformation.

California↗

USGS2012

Earthquake swarm in Long Valley caldera, California, January 1983: Evidence for dike inflation

The 1982–1983 deformation observed by trilateration and leveling surveys across the Long Valley caldera is apparently related to the 8.5‐km‐long by 8‐km‐deep vertical rupture surface defined by the January 1983 earthquake swarm that occurred in the south moat of the caldera. The observed deformation can be explained as follows. In late 1982, 0.03 km 3 of magma was injected into a dike that dips 30° northward from the bottom of the rupture surface. The downdip dimension of this dike is 8 km. The dike inflation accounts for the uplift observed across the caldera as well as some of the horizontal deformation. Inflation of the dike generated a tension of about 3 bars across the vertical plane that was to become the rupture surface of the January swarm. This reduced the frictional stress on the rupture plane and perhaps triggered the slip that caused the January swarm. Right‐lateral slip (0.22 m) on the uppermost 2 km of the rupture plane during and after the January swarm accounts for the additional horizontal deformation observed. The model can be improved marginally if strike slip is admitted over the entire rupture surface and 0.006 km 3 of magma is injected along that surface in the depth interval 3–8 km. The improvement in the model fit, however, is not sufficient to require shallow injection of magma. Thus we conclude that inflation of a dike at depth (8–12 km) dipping northward beneath the resurgent dome plus shallow right‐lateral slip on the rupture surface is a simple, but not unique, explanation of the observed deformation and seismicity.

California↗

USGS2012

Mineralogy and geochemistry of a sediment‐hosted hydrothermal sulfide deposit from the Southern Trough of Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California

Samples dredged from a 15‐m‐high hydrothermal mound atop the flat turbidite pond in the Southern Trough of Guaymas Basin consist of pyrrhotite‐rich massive sulfide, barite, barite + calcite, talc, and opaline silica as well as substrate material composed of fossiliferous, clay‐rich ooze. An 11‐m‐long sediment core taken near the dredge site shows increasing hydrothermal alteration with depth; anhydrite‐filled fractures near the base of the core appear to be channels for hydrothermal discharge. Oxidation of the sulfide‐rich samples to an assemblage of geothite, lepidocrocite, and amorphous Fe oxyhydroxide is ubiquitous. Compared to other massive sulfide deposits on sediment‐starved oceanic ridges, the hydrothermal deposit dredged in Guaymas Basin has a high pyrrhotite/pyrite ratio, a low Zn sulfide and combined ore metal (Cu + Zn + Pb + Ag + Cd) content, and a greater abundance of sulfate, carbonate, and silicate phases. Venting hydrothermal solutions are alkaline with moderately high p H; high Ca, Ba, and SiO 2 content; low ƒS 2 and ƒo 2 ; and very low transition metal content. Disequilibrium assemblages of pyrrhotite and sulfate minerals form during rapid mixing of this evolved vent fluid with ambient bottom waters at the discharge site. Talc is formed at a temperature near 270°C by mixing or entrainment of Mg‐rich bottom water or pore fluid with upwelling hydrothermal fluid that is saturated with silica. Calcite may precipitate from the alkaline, Ca‐rich fluid during degassing of CO 2 . The minimum temperature range for sulfide and nonsulfide deposition is approximately 190°–326°C. The composition of hydrothermal deposits, vent solutions, and altered sediment requires that circulating fluids evolve during deep penetration into the basaltic basement complex, further interaction with the organic‐and carbonate‐rich sediment pile, and near‐surface mixing with ambient seawater. Although the stable assemblage albite‐epidote‐clinochlore present at depth in the sediment pile requires very low dissolved Mg and Fe in the altering fluid, the addition of Mg to deeply buried sediment indicates significant recharge of the system by Guaymas Basin bottom water.

Southern Trough of Guaymas Basin↗

USGS2012

A plate flexure approximation to postseismic and interseismic deformation

The rather large postseismic deformation that is associated with two‐dimensional dip‐slip faulting in the lithosphere is related to the bending of a free plate generated by dip‐slip faulting. In the absence of gravity, asthenosphere relaxation eventually permits the faulted lithosphere to assume the dihedral configuration of a faulted free plate. For thrust faulting, the faulted area is depressed into the asthenosphere, and the flanks of the plate slope uniformly upward. In the presence of gravity, buoyancy forces act upon the plate, and the ultimate ( t →∞) postseismic uplift is approximated ( y /α > 0.2) by w 1 exp (− y /α) (cos y /α ‐ sin y /α), where w 1 is an explicit function of the fault parameters and lithosphere properties, y is the horizontal distance from the downdip end of the fault, and α is the flexural parameter for the lithosphere plate. The relaxed‐asthenosphere response is the sum of the coseismic deformation (unrelaxed‐astheriosphere response) and this ultimate postseismic deformation. The annual, steady deformation associated with strain accumulation at a subduction zone is simply the relaxed‐asthenosphere response to virtual, normal slip on the main thrust zone of an amount equal to the annual plate convergence. From these relations we have estimated the deformation (strain and uplift) expected along the Pacific coast of northern Honshu. The estimated deformation is about twice the observed deformation, but the predicted geographical distribution of the deformation is similar to the observed deformation.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗