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USGS2004

Presence and distribution of organic wastewater compounds in wastewater, surface, ground, and drinking waters, Minnesota, 2000-02

Selected organic wastewater compounds (OWCs) such as household, industrial, and agricultural-use compounds, pharmaceuticals, antibiotics, and sterols and hormones were measured at 65 sites in Minnesota as part of a cooperative study among the Minnesota Department of Health, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, and the U.S. Geological Survey. Samples were collected in Minnesota during October 2000 through November 2002 and analyzed for the presence and distribution of 91 OWCs at sites including wastewater treatment plant influent and effluent; landfill and feedlot lagoon leachate; surface water; ground water (underlying sewered and unsewered mixed urban land use, a waste dump, and feedlots); and the intake and finished drinking water from drinking water facilities. There were 74 OWCs detected that represent a wide variety of use. Samples generally comprised a mixture of compounds (average of 6 OWCs) and 90 percent of the samples had at least one OWC detected. Concentrations for detected OWCs generally were less than 3 micrograms per liter. The ten most frequently detected OWCs were metolachlor (agricultural-use herbicide); cholesterol (sterol primarily associated with animal waste); caffeine (stimulant), N,N-diethyl- meta -toluamide (DEET) (topical insect repellant); bromoform (disinfection by product); tri(2-chloroethyl)phosphate (flame-retardant and plastic component); beta -sitosterol (plant sterol that is a known endocrine disruptor); acetyl-hexamethyl-tetrahydro- naphthalene (AHTN) (synthetic musk widely used in personal care products, and a known endocrine disruptor); bisphenol-A (plastic component and a known endocrine disruptor); and cotinine (metabolite of nicotine). Wastewater treatment plant influent and effluent, landfill leachate, and ground water underlying a waste dump had the greatest number of OWCs detected. OWC detections in ground-water were low except underlying the one waste dump studied and feedlots. There generally were more OWCs detected in surface water than ground water, and there were twice as many OWCs detected in the surface water sites downstream from wastewater treatment plant (WWTP effluent than at sites not directly downstream from effluent. Comparisons among site classifications apply only to sites sampled during the study. Results of this study indicate ubiquitous distribution of measured OWCs in the environment that originate from numerous sources and pathways. During this reconnaissance of OWCs in Minnesota it was not possible to determine the specific sources of OWCs to surface, ground, or drinking waters. The data indicate WWTP effluent is a major pathway of OWCs to surface waters and that landfill leachate at selected facilities is a potential source of OWCs to WWTPs. Aquatic organism or human exposure to some OWCs is likely based on OWC distribution. Few aquatic or human health standards or criteria exist for the OWCs analyzed, and the risks to humans or aquatic wildlife are not known. Some OWCs detected in this study are endocrine disrupters and have been found to disrupt or influence endocrine function in fish. Thirteen endocrine disrupters, 3- tert -butyl-4-hydoxyanisole (BHA), 4- cumylphenol, 4- normal -octylphenol, 4- tert -octylphenol, acetyl-hexamethyl-tetrahydro-naphthalene (AHTN), benzo[α]pyrene, beta-sitosterol, bisphenol-A, diazinon, nonylphenol diethoxylate (NP2EO), octyphenol diethoxylate (OP2EO), octylphenol monoethoxylate (OP1EO), and total para -nonylphenol (NP) were detected. Results of reconnaissance studies may help regulators who set water-quality standards begin to prioritize which OWCs to focus upon for given categories of water use.

Minnesota↗

USGS2005

Feasibility of using benthic invertebrates as indicators of stream quality in Hawaii

Macroinvertebrates were collected from 19 sites on 14 streams on the island of Oahu and from 9 sites on 7 streams on the island of Kauai to evaluate associations between macroinvertebrate assemblages and environmental variables and to determine whether or not it would be feasible, in future studies, to develop macroinvertebrate metrics that would indicate stream quality based on the macroinvertebrate assemblages and/or components of the assemblages. The purpose of applying rapid bioassessment techniques is to identify stream quality problems and to document changes in stream quality. Samples were collected at 10 sites in 1999, 3 sites in 2000, and 5 sites in 2003 on Oahu and at 9 sites on Kauai in 2003. Additionally, multiple year and multiple reach samples were collected at 1 site on Oahu. Macroinvertebrates were collected primarily from boulder/cobble riffles or from the fastest flowing habitat when riffles were absent. Although most streams in Hawaii originate in mountainous, forested areas, the lower reaches often drain urban, agricultural, or mixed land-use areas. The macroinvertebrate community data were used to identify metrics that could best differentiate between sites according to levels of environmental impairment. Environmental assessments were conducted using land-use/land-cover data, bed-sediment and fish-tissue contaminant data, and reach-level environmental data using a calibration set of 15 sites. The final scores of the environmental assessments were used to classify the sites into three categories of impairment: mild, moderate or severe. A number of invertebrate metrics were then tested and calibrated to the environmental assessments scores. The individual metrics that were the best at discerning environmental assessments among the sites were combined into a multimetric benthic index of biotic integrity (BIBI). These metrics were: total invertebrate abundance, taxa richness, insect relative abundance, amphipod abundance, crayfish presence or absence, and native mountain shrimp presence or absence. Because this index is in the preliminary stage of development and additional 'pristine' sites need to be sampled and assessed to develop a more robust measure of biotic integrity, the index will be referred to as a Preliminary Hawaiian Benthic Index of Biotic Integrity (P-HBIBI). The P-HBIBI scores were then classified into three categories of impairment: mild, moderate, or severe. The P-HBIBI was then used to assess the remaining sites and classify them into impairment categories. The P-HBIBI was correlated (r2 = 0.72; p < 0.005) with a reduced environmental assessment determined without contaminants data. The results of this study suggest that the development of a reliable Hawaiian benthic index of biotic integrity (HBIBI), based on macroinvertebrate assemblages, is feasible; however, a much larger sample size, including more samples from 'pristine' sites and from the other islands, would be required.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2008

Effects of urbanization on stream ecosystems in the Willamette River basin and surrounding area, Oregon and Washington

This report describes the effects of urbanization on physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of stream ecosystems in 28 watersheds along a gradient of urbanization in the Willamette River basin and surrounding area, Oregon and Washington, from 2003 through 2005. The study that generated the report is one of several urban-effects studies completed nationally by the U.S. Geological Survey National Water-Quality Assessment Program. Watersheds were selected to minimize natural variability caused by factors such as geology, elevation, and climate, and to maximize coverage of different stages of urban development among watersheds. Because land use or population density alone often are not a complete measure of urbanization, a combination of land use, land cover, infrastructure, and socioeconomic variables were integrated into a multimetric urban intensity index (UII) to represent the degree of urban development in each watershed. Physical characteristics studied include stream hydrology, stream temperature, and habitat; chemical characteristics studied include sulfate, chloride, nutrients, pesticides, dissolved and particulate organic and inorganic carbon, and suspended sediment; and biological characteristics studied include algal, macroinvertebrate, and fish assemblages. Semipermeable membrane devices, passive samplers that concentrate trace levels of hydrophobic organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls, also were used. The objectives of the study were to (1) examine physical, chemical, and biological responses along the gradient of urbanization and (2) determine the major physical, chemical, and landscape variables affecting the structure of aquatic communities. Common effects documented in the literature of urbanization on instream physical, chemical, and biological characteristics, such as increased contaminants, increased streamflow flashiness, increased concentrations of chemicals, and changes in aquatic community structure toward a more tolerant community associated with organically enriched conditions, generally were observed in this study. The strongest correlations to the UII and to many of the algal, macroinvertebrate, and fish assemblage metrics and community ordination involved water-chemistry metrics including the total pesticide concentration, toxic equivalents (extract assay from semipermeable membrane devices), and dissolved oxygen. Hydrologic variability metrics, such as flashiness, that normally are considered to be one of the main processes of urban disturbance had a strong association to the algal and fish assemblages in this study; however, the hydrologic variables for macroinvertebrates were secondary to the water-chemistry metrics mentioned above. Generally, the high urban intensity sites had high abundances of eutrophic and lower dissolved oxygen-indicating diatoms, high abundances of noninsects and tolerant insects, and high abundances of nonnative fish species. On the other hand, the low urban intensity sites had higher abundances of pollution sensitive diatoms, larger numbers of the sensitive macroinvertebrate EPT taxa (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera Orders), and fish assemblages with higher abundances of sensitive salmonids. The percent salmonid and macroinvertebrate EPT richness metrics plotted against the UII indicated a possible threshold response at about 25 on the UII, which is equivalent to an impervious surface value of about 5 percent. However, due to the added agricultural land use at sites within the 25 to 60 UII range, this possible threshold probably is not solely due to urbanization, but a combination of urban and agricultural land use. The effects of agricultural and urban land use could not be distinguished from each other, yet combined they provide a good assessment of overall watershed disturbance.

Oregon, Washington↗

USGS2006

Water Quality, Physical Habitat, and Biology of the Kijik River Basin, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2004-2005

The U.S. Geological Survey and the National Park Service conducted a water-quality investigation of the Kijik River Basin in Lake Clark National Park and Preserve from June 2004 to March 2005. The Kijik River Basin was studied because it has a productive sockeye salmon run that is important to the larger Kvichak River watershed. Water-quality, physical habitat, and biological characteristics were assessed. Water type throughout the Kijik River Basin is calcium bicarbonate although Little Kijik River above Kijik Lake does have slightly higher concentrations of sulfate and chloride. Alkalinity concentrations are generally less than 28 milligrams per liter, indicating a low buffering capacity of these waters. Lachbuna Lake traps much of the suspended sediment from the glacier streams in the headwaters of the basin as evidenced by low secchi-disc transparency of 1 to 2 meters and low suspended sediment concentrations in the Kijik River downstream from the lake. Kijik Lake is a fed by clearwater streams and has secchi-disc readings ranging from 11 to 15 meters. Streambed sediments collected from four surface sites analyzed for trace elements indicated that arsenic concentrations at all sites were above proposed guidelines. However, arsenic concentrations are due to the local geology, not anthropogenic factors. Benthic macroinvertebrate qualitative multi-habitat samples collected from two sites on the Little Kijik River and two sites on the main stem of the Kijik River indicated a total of 69 taxa present among the four sites. The class Insecta, made up the largest percentage of macroinvertebrates, totaling 70 percent of the families found. The insects were comprised of four orders; Diptera (flies and midges), Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Plecoptera (stoneflies), and Trichoptera (caddisflies). One-hundred twenty-two species of periphytic algae were identified in qualitative multi-habitat samples collected at the four stream sites. Eight species of non-motile, diatoms were collected from all four stream sites suggesting that the areas from which they were collected are relatively stable and unaffected by sedimentation.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2006

Geology, Water, and Wind in the Lower Helmand Basin, Southern Afghanistan

This report presents an overview of the geology, hydrology, and climate of the lower Helmand Basin, a large, closed, arid basin in southern Afghanistan. The basin is drained by the Helmand River, the only perennial desert stream between the Indus and Tigris-Euphrates Rivers. The Helmand River is the lifeblood of southern Afghanistan and has supported desert civilizations in the Sistan depression for over 6,000 years. The Helmand Basin is a structurally closed basin that began to form during the middle Tertiary as a consequence of the collision of several Gondwanaland fragments. Aeromagnetic studies indicate the basin is 3-5 kilometers deep over basement rocks. Continued subsidence along basin-bounding faults in Iran and Pakistan throughout the Neogene has formed the Sistan depression in the southwest corner of the basin. Lacustrine, eolian, and fluvial deposits are commonly exposed in the basin and were intruded by latest Miocene-middle Quaternary volcanoes, which indicates that depositional environments in the lower Helmand Basin have not substantially changed for nearly 10 million years. Lakes expanded in the Sistan depression during the Quaternary; however, the size and extent of these pluvial lakes are unknown. Climate conditions in the lower Helmand Basin likely mirrored climate changes in the Rajasthan Desert to the east and in Middle Eastern deserts to the west: greater aridity during global episodes of colder temperatures and increased available moisture during episodes of warmer temperatures. Eolian processes are unusually dominant in shaping the landscape in the basin. A strong wind blows for 120 days each summer, scouring dry lakebeds and creating dune fields from annual flood deposits. Nearly one-third of the basin is mantled with active or stabilized dunes. Blowing winds combined with summer temperatures over 50? Celsius and voluminous insect populations hatched from the deltaic wetlands create an environment referred to as the 'most odious place on earth' by 19th century visitors. During dry years, large plumes of dust originating from Sistan are recorded by weather satellites. The Helmand River drains about 40 percent of Afghanistan and receives most of its moisture from melting snow and spring storms. Similar to many desert streams, the Helmand and its main tributary, the Arghandab River, are characterized by large fluctuations in monthly and annual discharges. Water from the Helmand accumulates in several hamuns (shallow lakes) in the Sistan depression. The wetlands surrounding these hamuns are the largest in western Asia and are directly affected by droughts and floods on the Helmand. Average annual discharge on the Helmand is about 6.12 million megaliters (million cubic meters), and the annual discharge varies by a factor of five. In 2005, the region was just beginning to recover from the longest drought (1998-2005) of record back to 1830. Annual peak discharges range from less than 80 cubic meters per second in 1971 to nearly 19,000 cubic meters per second in 1885. Large floods fill each hamun to overflowing to create one large lake that overflows into the normally dry Gaud-i Zirreh basin. The interaction of flooding, active subsidence, and wind erosion causes frequent channel changes on the Helmand delta. A major development effort on the Helmand River was initiated after World War II with substantial aid from the United States. Two dams and several major canals were completed in the 1950s; however, poor drainage conditions on the newly prepared agricultural fields caused extensive waterlogging and salinization. New drains were installed and improved agricultural methods were implemented in the 1970s, and some lands became more productive. Since 1980, Afghanistan has endured almost constant war and civil and political strife. In 2005, the country was on a path to rebuild much of its technical infrastructure. Revitalization of agricultural lands in the lower Helmand Basin and improved managem

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2007

Winter ecology of the western burrowing owl ( Athene cunicularia hypugaea ) in southern Texas 1999-2004

This study examines the winter ecology of the western burrowing owl ( Athene cunicularia hypugaea ) in five Texas counties surrounding Corpus Christi, in southern Texas. There is a substantial gap in information on the owl's life cycle during migration and non-breeding winter months; almost all previous research on western burrowing owls has been conducted during the breeding season. The western burrowing owl currently is federally threatened in Mexico, federally endangered in Canada, and in the United States is considered a National Bird of Conservation Concern by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Topics investigated included status, effectiveness of public outreach, roost sites and use of culverts and artificial burrows, roost site fidelity, diet, contaminant burdens, body mass, and ectoparasites. Early ornithological reports and a museum egg set revealed that burrowing owls once bred in southern Texas and were common in winter; however, since the 1950's they have been reported in relatively low numbers and only during winter. In this study, public outreach increased western burrowing owl detections by 68 percent. Owls selected winter roost sites with small-diameter openings, including culverts less than or equal to 16 centimeters and artificial burrows of 15 centimeters, probably because the small diameters deterred mammalian predators. Owls showed strong roost site fidelity; 15 banded birds stayed at the same roost sites within a winter, and 8 returned to the same site the following winter. The winter diet was over 90 percent insects, with crickets the primary prey. Analyses of invertebrate prey and regurgitated pellets showed that residues of all but 3 of 28 carbamate and organophosphate pesticides were detected at least once, but all were below known lethal concentrations. Mean body mass of western burrowing owls was 168 grams and was highest in midwinter. Feather lice were detected in low numbers on a few owls, but no fleas or other ectoparasites were found.

Texas↗

USGS2007

Factors Affecting the Occurrence and Distribution of Pesticides in the Yakima River Basin, Washington, 2000

The Yakima River Basin is a major center of agricultural production. With a cultivated area of about 450,000 ha (hectares), the region is an important producer of tree fruit, grapes, hops, and dairy products as well as a variety of smaller production crops. To control pest insects, weeds, and fungal infections, about 146 pesticide active ingredients were applied in various formulations during the 2000 growing season. Forty-six streams or drains in the Yakima River Basin were sampled for pesticides in July and October of 2000. Water samples also were collected from 11 irrigation canals in July. The samples were analyzed for 75 of the pesticide active ingredients applied during the 2000 growing season - 63 percent of the pesticides were detected. An additional 14 pesticide degradates were detected, including widespread occurrence of 2 degradates of DDT. The most frequently detected herbicide was 2,4-D, which was used on a variety of crops and along rights-of-way. It was detected in 82 percent of the samples collected in July. The most frequently detected insecticide was azinphos-methyl, which was used primarily on tree fruit. It was detected in 37 percent of the samples collected in July. All occurrences of azinphos-methyl exceeded the Environmental Protection Agency recommended chronic concentration for the protection of aquatic organisms. More than 90 percent of the July samples and 79 percent of the October samples contained two or more pesticides, with a median of nine in July and five in October. The most frequently occurring herbicides in mixtures were atrazine, 2,4-D, and the degradate deethylatrazine. The most frequently occurring insecticides in mixtures were azinphos-methyl, carbaryl, and p,p'-DDE (a degradate of DDT). A greater number of pesticides and higher concentrations were found in July than in October, reflecting greater usage and water availability for transport during the summer growing and irrigation season. Most of the samples collected in October (baseflow conditions) contained at least one pesticide. The mass ratio of instream pesticide load and application (pesticide loss) was used to explore spatial and temporal patterns of pesticide occurrence. Losses of pesticides with large organic carbon-water partitioning coefficients (Koc) values, which adhere strongly to sediment and plant surfaces, were smallest in catchments where sprinkler and drip irrigation systems were widely used. In contrast, losses of pesticides with low Koc values did not relate well with irrigation method.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2007

Occurrence of selected pharmaceuticals, personal-care products, organic wastewater compounds, and pesticides in the lower Tallapoosa River watershed near Montgomery, Alabama, 2005

Synthetic and natural organic compounds derived from agricultural operations, residential development, and treated and untreated sanitary and industrial wastewater discharges can contribute contaminants to surface and ground waters. To determine the occurrence of these compounds in the lower Tallapoosa River watershed, Alabama, new laboratory methods were used that can detect human and veterinary antibiotics; pharmaceuticals; and compounds found in personal-care products, food additives, detergents and their metabolites, plasticizers, and other industrial and household products in the environment. Well-established methods for detecting 47 pesticides and 19 pesticide degradates also were used. In all, 186 different compounds were analyzed by using four analytical methods. The lower Tallapoosa River serves as the water-supply source for more than 100,000 customers of the Montgomery Water Works and Sanitary Sewer Board. Source-water protection is a high priority for the Board, which is responsible for providing safe drinking water. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Montgomery Water Works and Sanitary Sewer Board, conducted this study to provide baseline data that could be used to assess the effects of agriculture and residential development on the occurrence of selected organic compounds in the lower Tallapoosa River watershed. Twenty samples were collected at 10 sites on the Tallapoosa River and its tributaries. Ten samples were collected in April 2005 during high base streamflow, and 10 samples were collected in October 2005 when base streamflow was low. Thirty-two of 186 compounds were detected in the lower Tallapoosa River watershed. Thirteen compounds, including atrazine, 2-chloro-4-isopropylamino-6-amino-s-triazine (CIAT), hexazinone, metalaxyl, metolachlor, prometryn, prometon, simazine, azithromycin, oxytetracycline, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, and tylosin, had measurable concentrations above their laboratory reporting levels. Concentrations were estimated for an additional 19 compounds that were detected below their laboratory reporting levels. The two most frequently detected compounds were the pesticides atrazine (19 of 20 samples) and simazine (13 of 20 samples). Tylosin, a veterinary antibiotic, was detected in 8 of 20 samples. Other compounds frequently detected at very low concentrations included CIAT and hexazinone (a degradate of atrazine and a pesticide, respectively); camphor (derived from personal-care products or flavorants), para-cresol (various uses including solvent, wood preservative, and in household cleaning products), and N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET, an insect repellent).

Alabama↗

USGS2008

Pesticide Occurrence and Distribution in the Lower Clackamas River Basin, Oregon, 2000-2005

Pesticide occurrence and distribution in the lower Clackamas River basin was evaluated in 2000?2005, when 119 water samples were analyzed for a suite of 86?198 dissolved pesticides. Sampling included the lower-basin tributaries and the Clackamas River mainstem, along with paired samples of pre- and post-treatment drinking water (source and finished water) from one of four drinking water-treatment plants that draw water from the lower river. Most of the sampling in the tributaries occurred during storms, whereas most of the source and finished water samples from the study drinking-water treatment plant were obtained at regular intervals, and targeted one storm event in 2005. In all, 63 pesticide compounds were detected, including 33 herbicides, 15 insecticides, 6 fungicides, and 9 pesticide degradation products. Atrazine and simazine were detected in about half of samples, and atrazine and one of its degradates (deethylatrazine) were detected together in 30 percent of samples. Other high-use herbicides such as glyphosate, triclopyr, 2,4-D, and metolachlor also were frequently detected, particularly in the lower-basin tributaries. Pesticides were detected in all eight of the lower-basin tributaries sampled, and were also frequently detected in the lower Clackamas River. Although pesticides were detected in all of the lower basin tributaries, the highest pesticide loads (amounts) were found in Deep and Rock Creeks. These medium-sized streams drain a mix of agricultural land (row crops and nurseries), pastureland, and rural residential areas. The highest pesticide loads were found in Rock Creek at 172nd Avenue and in two Deep Creek tributaries, North Fork Deep and Noyer Creeks, where 15?18 pesticides were detected. Pesticide yields (loads per unit area) were highest in Cow and Carli Creeks, two small streams that drain the highly urban and industrial northwestern part of the lower basin. Other sites having relatively high pesticide yields included middle Rock Creek and upper Noyer Creek, which drain basins having nurseries, pasture, and rural residential land. Some concentrations of insecticides (diazinon, chlorpyrifos, azinphos-methyl, and p,p?-DDE) exceeded U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) aquatic-life benchmarks in Carli, Sieben, Rock, Noyer, Doane, and North Fork Deep Creeks. One azinphos-methyl concentration in Doane Creek (0.21 micrograms per liter [?g/L]) exceeded Federal and State of Oregon benchmarks for the protection of fish and benthic invertebrates. Concentrations of several other pesticide compounds exceeded non-USEPA benchmarks. Twenty-six pesticides or degradates were detected in the Clackamas River mainstem, typically at much lower concentrations than those detected in the lower-basin tributaries. At least 1 pesticide was detected in 65 percent of 34 samples collected from the Clackamas River, with an average of 2?3 pesticides per sample. Pesticides were detected in 9 (or 60 percent) of the 15 finished water samples collected from the study water-treatment plant during 2003?2005. These included 10 herbicides, 1 insecticide, 1 fungicide, 1 insect repellent, and 2 pesticide degradates. The herbicides diuron and simazine were the most frequently detected (four times each during the study), at concentrations far below human-health benchmarks?USEPA Maximum Contaminant Levels or U.S. Geological Survey human Health-Based Screening Levels (HBSLs). The highest pesticide concentration in finished drinking water was 0.18 ?g/L of diuron, which was 11 times lower than its low HBSL benchmark. Although 0?2 pesticides were detected in most finished water samples, 9 and 6 pesticides were detected in 2 storm-associated samples from May and September 2005, respectively. Three of the unregulated compounds detected in finished drinking water (diazinon-oxon, deethylatrazine [CIAT], and N, N-diethyl-m-toluamide [DEET]) do not have human-health benchmarks available for comparison. Although most of the 51 curren

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2009

Ecological assessment of wadeable streams on O`ahu, Hawai'i, 2006-2007: A pilot study

In 2006–07, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Pacific Islands Water Science Center (PIWSC), in cooperation with the Hawai‘i Department of Health (HDOH), conducted a pilot study as a participant in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (USEPA) Wadeable Streams Assessment (WSA) program. Forty randomly selected sites on perennial streams on O‘ahu, Hawai‘i, were surveyed for habitat characteristics, water chemistry, and benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages. Of the original sampling frame of approximately 505.2 miles of perennial stream, roughly 96.7±30.7 miles were found to be nonperennial or estuarine and another 200.5±64.7 miles were judged to be inaccessible. The scope of this report presents an assessment of the remaining 208±57.6 miles of accessible, wadeable, perennial stream length on O‘ahu. Benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages were used to determine the ecological condition at each site. Components of the benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages were assessed using the multimetric Preliminary–Hawaiian Benthic Index of Biotic Integrity (P–HBIBI) developed by Wolff (2005). Based on the P–HBIBI scores, an estimated 5.8±5.8 percent of the island’s total stream length is in most disturbed condition, 56±13.5 percent is in intermediately disturbed condition, and 38.2±13.2 percent is in least disturbed condition. Windward O‘ahu had the highest percentage of stream length in least disturbed biological condition at 56.7±20.8 percent. Using the relative abundance of insects, one of the core metrics that make up the P–HBIBI, 43.4±14.2 percent of the islandwide stream length was classified in the most disturbed condition—52±31.2 percent of the Honolulu region stream length and 51.4±23.3 percent of the windward O‘ahu stream length. An analysis of total nitrogen (N) estimated approximately 41.1±13.7 percent of the stream length on O‘ahu was in most disturbed condition. Regionally, the Honolulu region had the largest proportion, 61.3±28.6 percent, of most disturbed stream length in terms of total N. An analysis of total phosphorus (P) classified approximately 43.2±14 percent of the stream length on O‘ahu as most disturbed. Regionally, windward O‘ahu had the largest proportion, 78.4±19.5 percent, of stream length classified as most disturbed. An analysis of embeddedness classified 30.3±14.7 percent of O‘ahu’s stream length as most. Regionally, windward O‘ahu had the largest proportion, 43.3±17.1 percent, of stream length classified as most disturbed as compared to the reference condition. An analysis of riparian disturbance, an index of the in-channel, riparian, and near-stream human activities, classified 43±13 percent of stream length on O‘ahu as most disturbed. The Honolulu region had the largest proportion of stream length, 86.3±13.7 percent, classified as most disturbed. The information in this report is the first attempt in Hawai‘i to assess the islandwide ecological condition of wadeable, perennial streams on O‘ahu using the USEPA WSA probabilistic design. This study has demonstrated that such an assessment is practical and that it can provide information that may help the USEPA and HDOH in determining the status of aquatic ecosystems on O‘ahu, Hawai‘i. This study provides a baseline assessment of the current islandwide ecological condition and identifies potential environmental stressors. It can be used, with future WSA studies in Hawai‘i, to measure the changes in those conditions and the effectiveness of management efforts to protect, restore, and maintain Hawai‘i’s aquatic environment.

Hawaii↗

USGS2011

Water quality of the Chokosna, Gilahina, Lakina Rivers, and Long Lake watershed along McCarthy Road, Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2007-08

The Chokosna, Gilahina, and Lakina River basins, and the Long Lake watershed are located along McCarthy Road in Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve. The rivers and lake support a large run of sockeye (red) salmon that is important to the commercial and recreational fisheries in the larger Copper River. To gain a better understanding of the water quality conditions of these watersheds, these basins were studied as part of a cooperative study with the National Park Service during the open water periods in 2007 and 2008. Water type of the rivers and Long Lake is calcium bicarbonate with the exception of that in the Chokosna River, which is calcium bicarbonate sulfate water. Alkalinity concentrations ranged from 63 to 222 milligrams per liter, indicating a high buffering capacity in these waters. Analyses of streambed sediments indicated that concentrations of the trace elements arsenic, chromium, and nickel exceed levels that might be toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms. However, these concentrations reflect local geology rather than anthropogenic sources in this nearly pristine area. Benthic macroinvertebrate qualitative multi-habitat and richest targeted habitat samples collected from six stream sites along McCarthy Road indicated a total of 125 taxa. Insects made up the largest percentage of macroinvertebrates, totaling 83 percent of the families found. Dipterans (flies and midges) accounted for 43 percent of all macroinvertebrates found. Analysis of the macroinvertebrate data by non-metric multidimensional scaling indicated differences between (1) sites at Long Lake and other stream sites along McCarthy Road, likely due to different basin characteristics, (2) the 2007 and 2008 data, probably from the higher rainfall in 2008, and (3) macroinvertebrate data collected in south-central Alaska, which represents a different climate zone. The richness, abundance, and community composition of periphytic algae taxa was variable between sampling sites. Taxa richness and diversity were highest at the Long Lake outflow site, suggesting that the lake may have contributed planktonic taxa to the periphytic community and (or) created physical and chemical conditions at the outlet that were favorable to a variety of taxa. Long Lake is fed by groundwater and by clear water (non glacial) streams, resulting in relatively high Secchi-disc readings ranging from 17.5 to 23 feet. Depth profiles of water temperature in the lake show a strong stratification during the summer from the surface to about 13 feet, with temperatures ranging from 16 to 5 °C. Depth profiles of dissolved oxygen in the lake show a strong stratification between 26 and 33 feet, below which the concentrations of dissolved oxygen decrease from 10 to 2 milligrams per liter. Because the Long Lake outlet stream supports a large run of sockeye salmon and water temperature is an important factor during its life cycle, a logistic model was used to simulate 1998–2006 water temperatures at this site. Analysis of simulation results for 1998–2008 indicated no significant trends in water temperature. 2007 water temperatures were the highest during the 10-year period.

Alaska↗

USGS2013

Water quality of streams draining abandoned and reclaimed mined lands in the Kantishna Hills area, Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska, 2008–11

The Kantishna Hills are an area of low elevation mountains in the northwest part of Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska. Streams draining the Kantishna Hills are clearwater streams that support several species of fish and are derived from rain, snowmelt, and subsurface aquifers. However, the water quality of many of these streams has been degraded by mining. Past mining practices generated acid mine drainage and excessive sediment loads that affected water quality and aquatic habitat. Because recovery through natural processes is limited owing to a short growing season, several reclamation projects have been implemented on several streams in the Kantishna Hills region. To assess the current water quality of streams in the Kantishna Hills area and to determine if reclamation efforts have improved water quality, a cooperative study between the U.S. Geological Survey and the National Park Service was undertaken during 2008-11. High levels of turbidity, an indicator of high concentrations of suspended sediment, were documented in water-quality data collected in the mid-1980s when mining was active. Mining ceased in 1985 and water-quality data collected during this study indicate that levels of turbidity have declined significantly. Turbidity levels generally were less than 2 Formazin Nephelometric Units and suspended sediment concentrations generally were less than 1 milligram per liter during the current study. Daily turbidity data at Rock Creek, an unmined stream, and at Caribou Creek, a mined stream, documented nearly identical patterns of turbidity in 2009, indicating that reclamation as well as natural revegetation in mined streams has improved water quality. Specific conductance and concentrations of dissolved solids and major ions were highest from streams that had been mined. Most of these streams flow into Moose Creek, which functions as an integrator stream, and dilutes the specific conductance and ion concentrations. Calcium and magnesium are the dominant cations, and bicarbonate and sulfate are the dominant anions. Water samples indicate that the water from Rock Creek, Moose Creek, Slate Creek, and Eldorado Creek is a calcium bicarbonate-type water. The remaining sites are a calcium sulfate type water. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency guidelines for arsenic and antimony in drinking water were exceeded in water at Slate Creek and Eureka Creek. Concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc in streambed sediments at many sites exceed sediment quality guideline thresholds that could be toxic to aquatic life. However, assessment of these concentrations, along with the level of organic carbon detected in the sediment, indicate that only concentrations of arsenic and chromium may be toxic to aquatic life at many sites. In 2008 and 2009, 104 macroinvertebrate taxa and 164 algae taxa were identified from samples collected from seven sites. Of the macroinvertebrates, 86 percent were insects and most of the algae consisted of diatoms. Based on the National Community Index, Rock Creek, a reference site, and Caribou Creek, and a mined stream that had undergone some reclamation, exhibited the best overall stream conditions; whereas Slate Creek and Friday Creek, two small streams that were mined extensively, exhibited the worst stream conditions. A non-metric multi-dimensional scaling analysis of the macroinvertebrate and algae data showed a distinct grouping between the 2008 and 2009 samples, likely because of differences between a wet, cool summer in 2008 and a dry, warm summer in 2009.

Alaska↗

USGS2015

Historical and projected climate (1901–2050) and hydrologic response of karst aquifers, and species vulnerability in south-central Texas and western South Dakota

Two karst aquifers, the Edwards aquifer in the Balcones Escarpment region of south-central Texas and the Madison aquifer in the Black Hills of western South Dakota, were evaluated for hydrologic response to projected climate change through 2050. Edwards aquifer sites include Barton Springs, the Bexar County Index Well, and Comal Springs. Madison aquifer sites include Spearfish Creek and Rhoads Fork Spring. Climate projections at sites were based on output from the Community Climate System Model of global climate, linked to the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model of regional climate. The WRF model output was bias adjusted to match means for 1981–2010 from records at weather stations near Madison and Edwards aquifer sites, including Boerne, Texas, and Custer and Lead, South Dakota. Hydrologic response at spring and well sites was based on the Rainfall-Response Aquifer and Watershed Flow (RRAWFLOW) model. The WRF model climate projections for 2011–50 indicate a significant upward trend in annual air temperature for all three weather stations and a significant downward trend in annual precipitation for the Boerne weather station. Annual springflow simulated by the RRAWFLOW model had a significant downward trend for Edwards aquifer sites and no trend for Madison aquifer sites. Flora and fauna that rely on springflow from Edwards and Madison aquifer sites were assessed for vulnerability to projected climate change on the basis of the Climate Change Vulnerability Index (CCVI). The CCVI is determined by the exposure of a species to climate, the sensitivity of the species, and the ability of the species to cope with climate change. Sixteen species associated with springs and groundwater were assessed in the Balcones Escarpment region. The Barton Springs salamander ( Eurycea sosorum ) was scored as highly vulnerable with moderate confidence. Nine species—three salamanders, a fountain darter ( Etheostoma fonticola ), three insects, and two amphipods—were scored as moderately vulnerable. The remaining six species—four vascular plants, the Barton cavesnail ( Stygopyrgus bartonensis ), and a cave shrimp—were scored as not vulnerable/presumed stable (not vulnerable and evidence does not support change in abundance or range of the species). Vulnerability of eight species associated with streams that receive springflow from the Madison aquifer in the Black Hills was assessed. Of these, the American dipper ( Cinclus mexicanus ) and the lesser yellow lady’s slipper ( Cypripedium parviflorum ) were scored as moderately vulernable with high confidence. The dwarf scouringrush ( Equisetum scirpoides ) and autumn willow ( Salix serissima ) were also scored as moderately vulnerable with moderate to low confidence, respectively. Other species were assessed as not vulnerable/presumed stable or not vulnerable/increase likely (not vulnerable and evidence supporting an increase in abundance or range of the species). Lower vulnerability scores for the Black Hills species in comparison to the Balcones Escarpment species reflect lower endemicity, higher projected springflow than in the historical period, and high thermal tolerance of many of the species for the Black Hills. Importantly, climate change vulnerability scores differed substantially for Edwards aquifer species when RRAWFLOW model projections were included, resulting in increased vulnerability scores for 12 of the 16 species.

South Dakota, Texas↗

USGS2017

Macroinvertebrate communities evaluated prior to and following a channel restoration project in Silver Creek, Blaine County, Idaho, 2001-16

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with Blaine County and The Nature Conservancy, evaluated the status of macroinvertebrate communities prior to and following a channel restoration project in Silver Creek, Blaine County, Idaho. The objective of the evaluation was to determine whether 2014 remediation efforts to restore natural channel conditions in an impounded area of Silver Creek caused declines in local macroinvertebrate communities. Starting in 2001 and ending in 2016, macroinvertebrates were sampled every 3 years at two long-term trend sites and sampled seasonally (spring, summer, and autumn) in 2013, 2015, and 2016 at seven synoptic sites. Trend-site communities were collected from natural stream-bottom substrates to represent locally established macroinvertebrate assemblages. Synoptic site communities were sampled using artificial (multi-plate) substrates to represent recently colonized (4–6 weeks) assemblages. Statistical summaries of spatial and temporal patterns in macroinvertebrate taxonomic composition at both trend and synoptic sites were completed. The potential effect of the restoration project on resident macroinvertebrate populations was determined by comparing the following community assemblage metrics: Total taxonomic richness (taxa richness); Total macroinvertebrate abundance (total abundance); Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera (EPT) richness; EPT abundance; Simpson’s diversity; and Simpson’s evenness for periods prior to and following restoration. A significant decrease in one or more metric values in the period following stream channel restoration was the basis for determining impairment to the macroinvertebrate communities in Silver Creek. Comparison of pre-restoration (2001–13) and post‑restoration (2016) macroinvertebrate community composition at trend sites determined that no significant decreases occurred in any metric parameter for communities sampled in 2016. Taxa and EPT richness of colonized assemblages at synoptic sites increased significantly from pre-restoration in 2013 to post-restoration in 2015 and 2016. Similarly, total and EPT abundances at synoptic sites showed non-significant increases from 2013 to 2015 and 2016. Significant seasonal differences in macroinvertebrate assemblages were apparent at synoptic site locations and likely reflected typical life-history patterns of increased insect emergence and development in the late spring and early summer months. Taxa and EPT richness were each significantly higher in spring and summer than in autumn, and total abundances were significantly higher in spring than in summer and autumn. No significant differences in community diversity or evenness of colonized communities were noted at synoptic site locations between pre- and post-restoration years or among seasons. Select community-metric results from the trend- and synoptic ‑ site sampling indicated that the Silver Creek restoration effort in 2014 did not result in a significant decline in resident macroinvertebrate communities.

Idaho↗

USGS2019

Benthos and plankton of western Lake Michigan Areas of Concern in comparison to non-Areas of Concern for selected rivers and harbors, 2012 and 2014

Since their designation in the 1980s, Areas of Concern (AOCs) around the Great Lakes have been the focus of multi-State and international cleanup efforts that were needed after decades of human activity resulted in severely contaminated sediment, water-quality degradation, loss of habitat for aquatic organisms, and impaired public use. Although individual Great Lake States had been working to cleanup and mitigate environmental concerns, there was insufficient funding and little coordination between Federal and State efforts to address the large and complex set of problems. The Great Lakes Ecosystem Protection Act was passed in 2010, providing for comprehensive multi-State planning and dedicating Federal funds to accelerate cleanup and improve conditions at the AOCs with a particular focus on 14 beneficial use impairments, such as degradation of benthos and degradation of phytoplankton and zooplankton populations. Of Wisconsin’s five AOCs, four lie adjacent to Lake Michigan: Lower Menominee River, Lower Green Bay and Fox River, Sheboygan River, and Milwaukee Estuary (which includes the Milwaukee River, Menomonee River, Kinnickinnic River, and Milwaukee Harbor). The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources has focused much of the cleanup on removal of contaminated sediment from these AOCs because many beneficial use impairments were a result of contaminated sediment. However, recent and quantitative assessments of the status of benthos and plankton at the AOCs were lacking. Therefore, to inform management decisions regarding the status of benthos and plankton at AOCs, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (WDNR) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Great Lakes National Program Office, assessed the condition of benthos (benthic invertebrates) and plankton (zooplankton and phytoplankton) at sites in the 4 AOCs and at 6 less-degraded comparison sites (hereafter referred to as “non-AOCs”). The U.S. Geological Survey collected benthos, plankton, sediment, and water three times per year in 2012 and 2014 between May and August at the AOC and non-AOC comparison sites. Except for Lower Green Bay and Milwaukee Harbor, each AOC site or subsite was paired with sites in two non-AOCs with similar environmental conditions. Community-based metrics were compared using univariate and multivariate statistics between each AOC and the mean of all non-AOCs and between each AOC and the mean of two non-AOC comparison sites. Although it was assumed that, because of their designation as AOCs, the relationships would indicate degraded conditions compared to the non-AOC sites, several metrics for the AOCs did not significantly differ between the AOCs and non-AOCs in 2014. Of all four AOCs examined for benthos, only the Lower Menominee River AOC differed from its two non-AOC comparison sites; the density and richness of taxa in insect orders Ephemeroptera-Plecoptera-Trichoptera (mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies) in combined benthos (dredge and artificial substrate samples) were lower at the AOC. For plankton, the assemblages for zooplankton at the Fox River near Allouez (a subsite in the Lower Green Bay AOC) and the Milwaukee River differed from their two non-AOC comparison sites; density of zooplankton was lower at both AOCs. Metrics for combined benthos and combined phytoplankton (soft algae and diatoms) at the Sheboygan River AOC did not differ from the two non-AOC comparison sites; however, the diversity of zooplankton in 2014 was lower at the Sheboygan River AOC than at the two non-AOC comparison sites. The combination of univariate and multivariate statistics provided a way to evaluate the status of the aquatic assemblage at each AOC and whether or not the assemblage differed from less-degraded non-AOC comparison sites. Results for this study provide multiple lines of evidence for evaluating the status of aquatic communities at AOC sites in Wisconsin along the western Lake Michigan shoreline in 2012 and 2014.

Wisconsin↗

USGS2023

Spatiotemporal variations in copper, arsenic, cadmium, and zinc concentrations in surface water, fine-grained bed sediment, and aquatic macroinvertebrates in the upper Clark Fork Basin, western Montana—A 20-year synthesis, 1996–2016

The legacy of mining-related contamination in the upper Clark Fork Basin created an extensive longitudinal gradient in metal concentrations, extending from Silver Bow Creek to Lake Pend Oreille, Idaho. Downstream metal concentrations continue to decline, but, despite such improvements, the ecological health of much of the river remains uncertain. Understanding the long-term consequences of the Clark Fork River mining legacy may be supported by environmental monitoring techniques that include a holistic assessment of biological health or response to define organism exposure to complex contaminant mixtures and the consequences of such exposures. This report presents the spatiotemporal patterns of mining-related contaminants, copper, arsenic, cadmium, and zinc, in surface water, fine-grained bed sediment, and macroinvertebrate (aquatic insect) tissue in the upper Clark Fork from near Butte to Missoula, Montana. Overall, the patterns in water column sample concentrations observed in this study were consistent with previously observed trends, but bed sediment concentrations and concentrations of copper and arsenic varied more in tissue samples among sites. Trace element concentrations, especially copper, often exceeded the chronic aquatic life criteria and consistently exceeded the sediment probable effects level PEL for copper, particularly in the upper and middle river segments. The 20 years considered here were the wettest period since remediation started, and this increase in precipitation may have affected patterns in contaminant concentrations. Results of this study demonstrated the utility of a continued, comprehensive biomonitoring program to help guide and evaluate future environmental cleanup activities in the Clark Fork. Despite variation in defining complete restoration in these watersheds, using multiple lines of evidence in this study provided quantifiable measures of the timing and completeness of recovery relative to reference conditions. Successful recovery in the Clark Fork may benefit from an adaptive management strategy to continue collecting a comprehensive, multivariate dataset to evaluate whether established goals are being met and for subsequent adjustments and management, as needed.

Montana↗

USGS2000

Surface-water quality, Oneida Reservation and vicinity, Wisconsin, 1997-98

Streamwater samples were collected at 19 sites in the vicinity of the Oneida Tribe of Indians of Wisconsin Reservation. Samples were collected during 5 sampling periods in 1997-98. Field measurements were made and samples were analyzed for nutrients, suspended sediment, major ions, and pesticides. Physical characteristics and human activity influence surface-water quality in the study area. Predominant land use in a drainage basin, specifically agricultural land use, appears to be a strong influence on surface-water quality. Other important influences on surface-water quality in the Oneida Reservation area include point-source contamination, size of the drainage basin, presence of clayey surficial deposits, and the timing and flow conditions during sampling. Concentrations of total phosphorus and of dissolved nitrite plus nitrate nitrogen often exceeded U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCL's). Concentrations of nutrients were highest at sites with greater than 80 percent agricultural land use in the drainage basin. Sodium and manganese were the major ions that most often exceeded USEPA water-quality criteria. The highest concentrations of sodium and chloride were detected at three sites in basins containing greater than 10 percent urban land and at two of ten sites in basins containing greater than 80 percent agricultural land. Concentrations of the pesticides atrazine, cyanazine, and diazinon exceeded MCL's at several sites. Elevated concentrations of agricultural pesticides were detected primarily at sites in basins containing greater than 80 percent agricultural land, in comparison to pesticide concentrations at sites in basins containing lesser amounts of agricultural land. Diazinon concentrations were higher at sites in basins containing more than 10 percent urban land compared to basins with little to no urban land. Stream habitat at three sites was rated "good" on the basis of the semiquantitative Great Lakes Environment Assessment procedure. On the basis of the semiquantitative procedure, habitat at three other sites was impaired, likely because of agricultural influences and tendencies towards low flow in the summer. Assessments of benthic community health based on benthic invertebrates showed that the communities were "very good" at one site, "good" at three sites, "fair" at one site, and "fairly poor" at one site. Mean tolerance values yielded similar assessments of the invertebrate communities. Taxa richness for pollution-sensitive insect orders indicates that water-quality is best at Thornberry Creek. Water-quality at Trout Creek and Lancaster Brook also rated fairly high. Shannon-Wiener diversity values indicate that the invertebrate communities at Dutchman Creek, and perhaps at Duck and Oneida Creeks, are under environmental stress. Assessments of the benthic algal community provided relative results as did invertebrate community assessments. Shannon-Wiener diversity values for diatoms indicate that algal communities are under minor stress in four of five streams sampled and under moderate stress in Dutchman Creek. A pollution index based on the percentages of diatoms that are pollution sensitive and pollution tolerant revealed that pollution at Dutchman Creek likely is moderate; pollution at the other four sampled creeks is either minor or nonexistent in terms of effects on the diatom community.

Wisconsin↗

USGS2001

Relation between selected well-construction characteristics and occurrence of bacteria in private household-supply wells, south-central and southeastern Pennsylvania

Total coliform and Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) bacteria were analyzed in ground water sampled from 78 private household-supply wells as part of a study by the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection to evaluate the relation between well construction characteristics and the occurrence of bacteria in ground water. Sampling was done in eight counties in south-central and southeastern Pennsylvania from September 2000 to March 2001. All samples were collected from wells in close proximity to agricultural land-use areas. Total coliform bacteria were found in water from 62 percent (48 of 78) of the wells, and bacteria were just as likely to be found in sanitary wells (grouted/loose-fitting well cap or grouted/sanitary sealed well cap) as in nonsanitary wells (nongrouted/ loose-fitting well cap). The areas underlain by carbonate bedrock had the highest percentages of total coliform detected (about 75 percent). Nearly half of the samples collected in the areas underlain by noncarbonate bedrock also were found to have total coliform present. E. coli bacteria were found in water from 10 percent of the wells. Seventeen percent of the samples that were positive for total coliform also were positive for E. coli . The presence of E. coli bacteria was more likely in water from nonsanitary wells. Additionally, the presence of E. coli bacteria was more likely in ground water from wells underlain by carbonate bedrock. A further breakdown of the data into four groups on the basis of sanitary construction and bedrock type indicated the presence of E. coli was more likely in water from nonsanitary wells in areas underlain by carbonate bedrock. Statistical analysis of other well-construction characteristics that might relate to occurrence of bacteria showed that the presence of total coliform bacteria was related to the depth to water-bearing zone in both sanitary and nonsanitary wells in areas underlain by carbonate bedrock. Relations also are present between the presence of total coliform bacteria and casing length in nonsanitary wells in areas underlain by noncarbonate bedrock. Bacteria were found in wells both with and without insects observed on the underside of the well cap. Because of the small number of wells sampled that had sanitary sealed caps, it is uncertain whether installation of sanitary sealed well caps would reduce the incidence of bacteria in ground water from wells or if the presence of bacteria is because of a combination of well-construction characteristics or aquifer-wide contamination of limited or broad areal extent.

Pennsylvania↗