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USGS2012

National wildlife refuge visitor survey 2010/2011: Individual refuge results

The National Wildlife Refuge System (Refuge System), established in 1903 and managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), is the leading network of protected lands and waters in the world dedicated to the conservation of fish, wildlife and their habitats. There are 556 national wildlife refuges and 38 wetland management districts nationwide, encompassing more than 150 million acres. The Refuge System attracts more than 45 million visitors annually, including 25 million people per year to observe and photograph wildlife, over 9 million to hunt and fish, and more than 10 million to participate in educational and interpretation programs. Understanding visitors and characterizing their experiences on national wildlife refuges are critical elements of managing these lands and meeting the goals of the Refuge System. The Service collaborated with the U.S. Geological Survey to conduct a national survey of visitors regarding their experiences on national wildlife refuges. The survey was conducted to better understand visitor needs and experiences and to design programs and facilities that respond to those needs. The survey results will inform Service performance planning, budget, and communications goals. Results will also inform Comprehensive Conservation Plan (CCPs), Visitor Services, and Transportation Planning processes. This data series consists of 53 separate data files. Each file describes the results of the survey for an individual refuge and contains the following information: * Introduction: An overview of the Refuge System and the goals of the national surveying effort. * Methods: The procedures for the national surveying effort, including selecting refuges, developing the survey instrument, contacting visitors, and guidance for interpreting the results. * Refuge Description: A brief description of the refuge location, acreage, purpose, recreational activities, and visitation statistics, including a map (where available) and refuge website link. * Sampling at This Refuge: The sampling periods, locations, and response rate for the refuge. * Selected Survey Results: Key findings for the refuge, including: - Visitor and Trip Characteristics - Visitor Spending in the Local Communities - Visitors Opinions about This Refuge - Visitor Opinions about National Wildlife Refuge System Topics * Conclusion * References * Survey Frequencies (Appendix A): The survey instrument with the frequency results for this refuge. * Visitor Comments (Appendix B): The verbatim responses to the open-ended survey questions for this refuge. Combined results for the 53 participating refuges are available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/685/ as part of USGS Data Series 685.

Data Series↗
USGS2025

Direct effects of pesticides and other grassland management practices on the North American Monarch Butterfly (Danaus plexippus plexippus): A systematic review

This review synthesizes recent scientific literature on the effects of grassland management practices and pesticide applications on monarch butterflies ( Danaus plexippus ), focusing on studies published since the 2020 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Species Status Assessment (SSA). While the SSA highlighted habitat conservation efforts to enhance monarch populations, there has been limited empirical research on the direct effects of these management strategies on monarch survival and fitness. Following PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a systematic review to evaluate research published during and after the SSA (2019-2024) on the direct effects of common grassland management practices (mowing, grazing, burning, haying) and pesticides (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides) across monarch life stages. This search identified 29 studies that met our criteria. Of these, only two studies addressed the impacts of grassland management on monarchs, indicating a substantial and important information gap. The other 27 studies reviewed indicate significant risks of pesticide exposure to monarchs, particularly at immature life stages from lethal and sublethal effects. The effects of chronic insecticide exposure, particularly neonicotinoids, are especially critical to consider, as research shows insecticides can result in impairment of growth, development, and reproductive behaviors. Additionally, fungicides pose overlooked risks to monarchs due to their toxicity to non-target organisms. Notably, most studies evaluating pesticide effects were conducted in a laboratory setting and thus it is unclear how these results relate to fieldrealistic exposure, as well as exposure over multiple life history stages and potential synergistic effects of pesticides. Additional relevant information gaps remain, especially on studies of southern migratory paths critical for monarch population persistence. Data gaps at relevant scales for grassland management combined with growing evidence of pesticide persistence and subsequent threats to insects, highlight how more ecologically applicable metrics for monitoring environmental chemicals could help improve understanding of the effects of pesticides on monarchs and characterize contamination of milkweed and nectar resources.

Cooperator Science Series↗
USGS2011

The effect of offering distance education on enrollment in onsite training at the National Conservation Training Center

The objective of this study was to explore the effect that providing distance education courses would have on enrollment in courses offered on the campus of the National Conservation Training Center. This is an exploratory study and the results should be interpreted as preliminary rather than conclusive. The study included two components: analysis of existing training-enrollment data for the time period from October 1, 2007 to June 24, 2009, and a survey of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) employees regarding their preferences for onsite training and distance education. The analysis of training-enrollment data included training records for 2,823 Service employees. Using this dataset, we created a database that included region, supervisory status, number of enrollments in online training, instructor-led web-based classes, correspondence courses, courses at the campus of the National Conservation Training Center, and instructor-led courses off campus. Our analyses focused on differences between enrollment in distance education and onsite courses and the effects of regional affiliation, supervisory status, and course format. Generally, the regions closest to the campus had higher enrollment in onsite training and regions farther away had higher enrollment in distance education. Nonsupervisors were more likely to enroll in training on campus and supervisors were more likely to enroll in instructor-led training off site. Enrollment in instructor-led courses was higher than in self-paced courses, although this may result from fewer offerings of self-paced courses. The second component of the study involved a survey of Service employees regarding their preferences for distance education and onsite training. The survey was administered online and 911 Service employees responded. Overall, survey respondents indicated a small preference for onsite training and were more likely to enroll in onsite courses than distance education. When asked to indicate reasons that would lead them to choose one type of training over the other, practical reasons were more frequently indicated as influential in the decision to enroll in distance education and interactions with others were more frequently cited as reasons to enroll in onsite training.We conclude that the information we assembled and analyzed indicates that distance education currently functions as a supplemental approach to training when participation in training onsite at the National Conservation Training Center campus is impractical.

Open-File Report↗
USGS1993

Economic analysis of critical habitat designation for the desert tortoise (Mojave population)

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service emergency 1isted the Mojave population of the desert tortoise as endangered on August 4, 1989. The Mojave population formally was listed as threatened on April 2, 1990. The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, requires that the economic benefits and costs and other relevant effects of critical habitat designation be considered. The Secretary of the Interior may exclude from designation areas where the costs of designation are greater than the benefits, unless the exclusion would result in extinction of the species. Desert tortoises are threatened by an accumulation of human-and disease-related mortality accompanied by habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation. Many desert tortoises are illegally collected for pets, food, and commercial trade. Others are accidentally struck and killed by vehicles on roads and highways or are killed by gunshot or vehicles traveling off-highway. Raven predation on hatchling desert tortoises has increased as raven populations in the desert have risen. An upper respiratory tract disease is suspected to be a major cause of mortality in the western Mojave Desert. This presumably incurable affliction presumably is thought to be spread through the release of infected tortoises into the desert. The Service has proposed designating critical habitat in nine counties within four states. The 12 critical habitat units encompass 6.4 million acres of land, more than 80% federally owned. This region is economically and demographically diverse. Most of the land is sparsely settled and characterized as a hot desert ecosystem. Major industries in the region include entertainment and lodging (primarily in Las Vegas), property development to accommodate the rapid population growth, and services. Millions of rural acres in the region are leased by the federal government for livestock grazing and used for mining. Overall economic benefits to the affected states derived from cattle and sheep grazing in the hot desert areas are minimal and, according to a recent U.S. General Accounting Office study (1991), local economies do not depend on the grazing of public lands for economic survival. The economic analysis describes the economy in 1990, prior to designation, and estimates the effects of designation. The report estimates those incremental effects attributable to critical habitat designation. Impacts attributable to listing the species were not considered in this analysis. Although critical habitat units have been designated in nine counties, two counties are omitted from the economic analysis because of the small proportion of critical habitat acreage they include. Three key activities (cattle grazing, mineral extraction, and off-road vehicle use) were studied in detail. Even if livestock grazing and commercial off-road racing events were eliminated in the proposed critical habitat units, the potential incremental regional economic impacts would be extremely small. The findings in the report do not include the assumption that mining would be eliminated from critical habitat units, but rather that consultation may result in added mitigation and/or relocation of features. Studies show that society will realize benefits from preservation of species and ecosystems. Survey-based studies confirm that benefits exist and are substantial in size, although these benefits often are not measured in traditional economic markets. The total benefit to society of desert tortoise preservation includes several components. Biodiversity in the Mojave and Colorado Deserts will be improved, some recreation values may increase, and gains in intrinsic value will be realized. Critical habitat designation should result in the loss of fewer than 425 total jobs in the seven counties. These include 340 direct ranching jobs and 85 indirect jobs in other industries. This estimated employment loss will not be permanent for most laborers, it is anticipated that over 85% will be reemployed within two years. The economic consequences of designating critical habitat includes reduced ranch profits in the seven counties of $4,470,000 [the estimated permanent decrease in ranch profits, capitalized at 10% for a 50-year period, in accordance with the methodology of River, et al. (1978)]. Second, the federal government will compensate allottees with a one-time payment estimated at $376,000 for the loss of permanent improvements to grazing lands (pending BLM administrative decisions of partially affected allotments). Finally, discontinuing grazing fees will result in an annual reduction of $170,000 in collected grazing fees that are divided among range improvements, the Federal Treasury, and local governments.

California, Nevada↗
USGS2021

Hydrology and water quality of the Great Dismal Swamp, Virginia and North Carolina, and implications for hydrologic-management goals and strategies

The Great Dismal Swamp is a peat wetland in the Coastal Plain of southeastern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina. Timber harvesting and the construction of ditches to drain the swamp and facilitate the harvesting are collectively implicated in changes that altered the wetland forests, caused subsidence and decomposition of the peat, and increased the risk of fire. In response to these changes, managers have implemented strategies to control water levels and rewet the swamp using a network of 64 adjustable-height, water-control structures on the ditches. Rewetting the swamp is intended to re-establish the original wetland-forest types, reduce the risk of fire, reduce subsidence and decomposition of the peat, enhance peat accretion, and reduce the risk of fire. Knowledge of responses of the swamp to hydrologic controls, however, is critical to developing and implementing effective management goals and strategies. Because the 2008 South One fire reemphasized the need for this knowledge, the U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service began studies in 2009 to identify critical hydrologic controls and responses to these controls. These studies identified water sources, topography, the two-layered hydraulic characteristics of the peat, the absence of peat in some areas, the ditch and road network, water-control structures on the ditches, the Dismal Swamp Canal and associated infrastructure, and wetland forests as the primary hydrologic controls. Precipitation is the only water source across much of the swamp. The eastward flow of streams and groundwater from the Isle of Wight Plain, across the Suffolk scarp, and into the swamp are additional water sources to the western part of the swamp. Vertical differences in the hydraulic characteristics of the peat reflect an upper peat having a high hydraulic conductivity and specific yield overlying a lower peat and sand having lower hydraulic conductivity and specific yield. The upper peat forms the main aquifer for the storage, flow, and release of water from the swamp. Maintaining water in the upper peat is critical to water availability to the wetland forests because of these properties. Groundwater flows from the swamp into the ditches and the Dismal Swamp Canal where it discharges into nearby streams. Discharge typically is to the closest ditch except where a spoil-pile road that impedes flow intervenes between the swamp and the ditch. When groundwater levels in a ditch are about 2 feet lower than levels in the other three ditches surrounding a part of the swamp, however, most groundwater typically discharges to the ditch having the lower level. This occurs even if a spoil-pile road intervenes between the swamp and the ditch having the lower level. Flow to a single ditch shifts watershed boundaries and groundwater divides toward the ditches having higher water levels and demonstrates how flow and discharge are controlled by ditch water levels. Consequently, managing water levels based on these and other hydrologic controls and responses is critical to achieving management objectives. The chemistry of water across the swamp shows the effects of the peat. Dissolved organic carbon concentrations in the groundwater are among the highest reported globally, ranging from 55 to 195 milligrams per liter. The pH of groundwater and ditch water is commonly less than 4.0 standard units because of organic acids. A relation between the pH and specific conductance of groundwater and ditch water reflects water sources, flow paths, and the chemical evolution, as waters from the different sources mix and flow along the paths.

North Carolina, Virginia↗
USGS2021

Historical floods and geomorphic change in the lower Little Colorado River during the late 19th to early 21st centuries

The Little Colorado River is a major tributary to the Colorado River with a confluence at the boundary between Marble and Grand Canyons within Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona. The bedrock gorge of the lower Little Colorado River is home to the largest known population of Gila cypha (humpback chub), an endangered fish endemic to the Colorado River Basin. Channel conditions might affect the spawning success of the humpback chub. Perennial base flow in the lower Little Colorado River deposits travertine, which forms dams and cascades. Geomorphic change in the lower Little Colorado River is controlled by the growth and collapse of travertine dams, debris flows from tributaries, and reworking of dams and debris fans by Little Colorado River floods. A study was conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Glen Canyon Dam Adaptive Management Program and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, to document historical floods and geomorphic change in the lower Little Colorado River. For this study, we used historical and gaging records and hydraulic modeling of surveyed high-water marks from historical Little Colorado River floods to construct a peak-flow history of the lower Little Colorado River. We analyzed base-flow longitudinal profiles and historical photographs to determine changes in the longitudinal profile of the lower Little Colorado River from 1909 to 2019. The peak-flow magnitudes and the frequency of larger floods have declined since the late 1800s, and the longitudinal profile of the Little Colorado River has substantially changed between 1909 and 2019. Aggradation of as much as 6 meters in some reaches occurred between 1926 and 1992, mostly before the 1950s. This aggradation was caused largely by the documented growth of travertine dams continuing through at least 2013 at several locations. Other reaches were incised by as much as 10 meters between 1926 and 1992, but mostly before the 1950s, largely from the breaching of travertine dams. Travertine dams in the Little Colorado River have survived large flooding events and then later collapsed during floods of lower streamflow or even periods of base flow. The decline in peak-flow magnitude and frequency has changed the dominant geomorphic processes in this formerly dynamic reach. Large incision events have not been documented since the early 1950s; for this reason, the reach has only aggraded or remained stable since that time. This loss of geomorphic disturbance has likely affected, and will likely continue to affect, the spawning habitat of the endangered humpback chub in the lower Little Colorado River.

Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, Utah↗
USGS2003

Seabird tissue archival and monitoring project: Egg collections and analytical results 1999-2002

In 1998, the U.S. Geological Survey Biological Resources Division (USGS-BRD), the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge (AMNWR), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) began the Seabird Tissue Archival and Monitoring Project (STAMP) to collect and cryogenically bank tissues from seabirds in Alaska for future retrospective analysis of anthropogenic contaminants. The approach of STAMP was similar to that of the Alaska Marine Mammal Tissue Archival Project (AMMTAP). AMMTAP was started in 1987 by NIST and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) as part of the Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment Program sponsored by the Minerals Management Service. Presently sponsored by the USGS-BRD, AMMTAP continues its work as part of a larger national program, the Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program. AMMTAP developed carefully designed sampling and specimen banking protocols. Since 1987, AMMTAP has collected tissues from marine mammals taken in Alaska Native subsistence hunts and has cryogenically banked these tissues at the NIST National Biomonitoring Specimen Bank (NBSB). Through its own analytical work and working in partnership with other researchers both within and outside Alaska, AMMTAP has helped to develop a substantial database on contaminants in Alaska marine mammals. In contrast, data and information is limited on contaminants in Alaska seabirds, which are similar to marine mammals in that they feed near the top of the food chain and have the potential for accumulating anthropogenic contaminants. During its early planning stages, STAMP managers identified the seabird egg as the first tissue of choice for study by the project. There is a relatively long history of using bird eggs for environmental monitoring and for investigating the health status of bird populations. Since 1998, protocols for collecting and processing eggs, and cryogenically banking egg samples have been developed by STAMP (see York et al. 2001). Eggs are being collected on an annual basis for several species at nesting colonies throughout Alaska. Aliquots of these egg samples are being analyzed on a regular basis for persistent organic pollutants and mercury. Results of this work have been published in scientific journals (Christopher et al. 2002) and in conference proceedings (Kucklick et al. 2002; Vander Pol et al. 2002a, 2002b). The intent of this report is to provide an up-to-date description of STAMP. The report contains the most recent egg collection inventory, analytical data, preliminary interpretations based on these data, and a discussion of possible future directions of the project.

Report↗
USGS2013

A model for evaluating effects of climate, water availability, and water management on wetland impoundments--a case study on Bowdoin, Long Lake, and Sand Lake National Wildlife Refuges

Many wetland impoundments managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) National Wildlife Refuge System throughout the northern Great Plains rely on rivers as a primary water source. A large number of these impoundments currently are being stressed from changes in water supplies and quality, and these problems are forecast to worsen because of projected changes to climate and land use. For example, many managed wetlands in arid regions have become degraded owing to the long-term accumulation of salts and increased salinity associated with evapotranspiration. A primary goal of the USFWS is to provide aquatic habitats for a diversity of waterbirds; thus, wetland managers would benefit from a tool that facilitates evaluation of wetland habitat quality in response to current and anticipated impacts of altered hydrology and salt balances caused by factors such as climate change, water availability, and management actions. A spreadsheet model that simulates the overall water and salinity balance (WSB model) of managed wetland impoundments is presented. The WSB model depicts various habitat metrics, such as water depth, salinity, and surface areas (inundated, dry), which can be used to evaluate alternative management actions under various water-availability and climate scenarios. The WSB model uses widely available spreadsheet software, is relatively simple to use, relies on widely available inputs, and is readily adaptable to specific locations. The WSB model was validated using data from three National Wildlife Refuges with direct and indirect connections to water resources associated with rivers, and common data limitations are highlighted. The WSB model also was used to conduct simulations based on hypothetical climate and management scenarios to demonstrate the utility of the model for evaluating alternative management strategies and climate futures. The WSB model worked well across a range of National Wildlife Refuges and could be a valuable tool for USFWS staff when evaluating system state and management alternatives and establishing long-term goals and objectives.

Bowdoin National Wildlife Refuge;Long Lake Nationa↗
USGS2024

Topographic and bathymetric survey in support of the effectiveness assessment of the living shoreline restoration in Gandys Beach, New Jersey

High resolution topobathymetric field surveys were conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey in collaboration with Northeastern University and in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and The Nature Conservancy in a selected shoreline along Gandys Beach, New Jersey, from January to April 2018. These data are a critical model input for hydrodynamic and wave models and can affect the accuracy of model outputs such as wave height, water surface elevation, current velocity, and sediment transport. Gandys Beach is a living shoreline where constructed oyster reefs (CORs) were built to protect the shoreline and enhance habitat for oyster and other species. Because of the complex topography and bathymetry of the study area, higher spatial resolution topobathymetric data are required to resolve the vertical variations near the CORs. During the field survey, the global navigation satellite system positioning method was used to establish the elevation of a benchmark referenced to the North American Vertical Datum of 1988. The topobathymetric data were collected using a total station. Horizontal accuracy of plus or minus 0.05 foot (ft) and vertical accuracy of plus or minus 0.10 ft were calculated using root mean square error between duplicate surveys. Two existing datasets were integrated with the survey data to create an updated topobathymetric dataset for model input and analysis: (1) the U.S. Geological Survey Coastal National Elevation Database 1-meter resolution data developed after Hurricane Sandy and (2) The Nature Conservancy 2017 elevation monitoring data at 10-meter resolution. A root mean square error analysis comparing survey data with the new topobathymetric dataset versus the survey data compared to the original Coastal National Elevation Data dataset showed errors of 0.31 and 2.61 ft, respectively. This improved dataset can be used for wave and hydrodynamic modeling in support of the effectiveness assessment of the CORs and living shoreline restoration along Gandys Beach.

New Jersey↗
USGS1999

Assessing environmental contaminant threats to lands and biota managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

The Contaminant Assessment Process (CAP) is a standardized approach for documenting and assessing threats posed by environmental contaminants to lands and biota managed by the Department of the Interior (DOI). The Biomonitoring of Environmental Status and Trends (BEST) Program of the U.S. Geological Survey Biological Resources Division (USGS/BRD) developed the CAP cooperatively with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's (FWS) Division of Environmental Contaminants (DEC). The CAP involves two parts, a retrospective analysis, and if needed, field-sampling. The retrospective analysis documents the ecological characteristics, management goals, areas potentially vulnerable to hazardous substance spills, and habitats of importance for the DOI land unit of interest. In addition, contaminant transport pathways and sources (point and nonpoint) are identified and potentially contaminated areas delineated. The second part of the CAP involves developing field-sampling plans to confirm the presence or effects of contaminants identified in the retrospective analysis. Field-sampling deemed necessary to confirm contaminant issues on national wildlife refuges identified through the retrospective analyses of CAP is handled as part of DECs on- and off-refuge investigation programs. By gathering and interpreting information, the CAP generates valuable insight regarding contaminant issues that may be affecting refuges. Findings from the CAP can help FWS stewards select options that reduce contaminant impacts on the habitats and species that they manage. Information synthesized through the CAP also contributes to the development of Comprehensive Conservation Plans mandated through the National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997. To insure that this information has the maximum benefit to the agency, DEC and the BEST Program jointly developed a data management system to support the CAP. This system facilitates information acquisition from remote sources and serves as a permanent data repository. Thus, the system documents CAP findings, enhances FWS's institutional memory, and supports informed management decisions. This document is a user's guide, intended for use by FWS field biologists responsible for applying the retrospective analysis portion of the CAP to FWS national wildlife refuge lands and provides instructions for entering information into the data management system. This is the third revision of the original document written in 1993 by scientists of the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory.

Open-File Report↗
USGS2021

Optimization of salt marsh management at the Moosehorn National Wildlife Refuge, Maine, through use of structured decision making

Structured decision making is a systematic, transparent process for improving the quality of complex decisions by identifying measurable management objectives and feasible management actions; predicting the potential consequences of management actions relative to the stated objectives; and selecting a course of action that maximizes the total benefit achieved and balances tradeoffs among objectives. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, applied an existing, regional framework for structured decision making to develop a prototype tool for optimizing tidal marsh management decisions at the Moosehorn National Wildlife Refuge in Maine. Refuge biologists, refuge managers, and research scientists identified multiple potential management actions to improve the ecological integrity of four marsh management units within the refuge, totaling about 13 hectares, and estimated the outcomes of each action in terms of performance metrics associated with each management objective. Value functions previously developed at the regional level were used to transform metric scores to a common utility scale, and utilities were summed to produce a single score representing the total management benefit that could be accrued from each potential management action. Constrained optimization was used to identify the set of management actions, one per marsh management unit, that could maximize total management benefits at different cost constraints at the refuge scale. Results indicated that, for the objectives and actions considered here, total management benefits may increase consistently up to $ 1,000, and may continue to increase at a lower rate with further expenditures. Potential management actions in optimal portfolios at total costs less than or equal to $ 1,000 included improving nesting habitat for Ammodramus nelsoni (Nelson’s sparrow) or restoring hydrologic connections to the upper marsh in one marsh management unit (Hobart Stream West). The potential management benefits were derived from expected increases in the density of nekton and of spiders (as an indicator of trophic health). The prototype presented here does not resolve management decisions; rather, it provides a framework for decision making at the Moosehorn National Wildlife Refuge that can be updated for implementation as new data and information become available. Insights from this process may also be useful to inform future habitat management planning at the refuge.

Maine↗
USGS1989

Assessing the relationship between Section 404 and wetland losses: a feasibility study

The primary objective of the Clean Water Act of 1977 (33 U.S.C. 1251) is to restore and maintain the physical, chemical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters. Section 404 of the Act regulates the discharge of dredged or fill materials into wetlands and represents the primary Federal authority for regulation of wetland alterations. Since its inception, the Section 404 program has been controversial in regard to the extent to which it was intended to provide wetlands regulation. Section 404 requires those who wish to discharge dredged or fill material into waters of the United States, which include many wetlands, to first obtain a Federal permit. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has overall responsibility for administration of the Section 404 program and promulgates guidelines that must be followed in issuing permits. In addition, EPA has the final authority to prohibit specific discharges if the environmental impacts are unacceptable. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) issues Section 404 permits, which can be of two types. Individual Permits are issued following case-by-case reviews of proposed discharges. General Permits, which can be either nationwide or regional in scope, are authorized by the Corps for categories of activities that are similar in nature and that have only minimal individual and cumulative adverse environmental impacts. EPA, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), the Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), and State natural resource agencies review and comment on permit applications and offer recommendations on appropriate mitigation measures. Although comments from the Service and other natural resource agencies are advisory in nature (EPA's veto authority excepted), they can serve as the basis for modifying, conditioning, or denying a Section 404 permit. In 1986, in a survey conducted by the National Ecology Research Center, Service personnel indicated interest in additional information concerning both wetland trends and the impacts of activities authorized by the Corps under Section 404 (Roelle 1986). Although there is some information concerning wetland losses for certain geographic areas and for the Nation as a whole (Frayer et al. 1983; Tiner 1984), there appears to be little information on how these losses relate to the Section 404 permitting process. The primary objective of this study was to determine the feasibility of estimating wetland losses in relationship to Individual and General Permits issued under Section 404. A secondary objective was to assemble data on acceptance and implementation of specific mitigation recommendations offered by the Service and other natural resource agencies in connection with development activities on wetlands examined. At present, 26 categories of Nationwide permits have been authorized by the Corps. Nationwide permit 26 was of particular interest in this study because it specifically authorizes discharges into wetlands under certain circumstances (see Figure 1 and related text for a more complete discussion of circumstances under which Nationwide Permit 26 is applicable). All subsequent references to Nationwide or General permits pertain to Nationwide Permit 26.

Report↗
USGS2006

History of the Fort Collins Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey

The U.S. Geological Survey’s Fort Collins Science Center ("the Center") has been a nucleus of research, technology development, and associated scientific activities within the Department of the Interior for more than 30 years. The Center’s historical activities are deeply rooted in federal biological resources research and its supporting disciplines, particularly as they relate to the needs of the U.S. Department of the Interior and its resource management agencies. The organizational framework and activities of the Center have changed and adapted over the years in response to shifts in the scientific issues and challenges facing the U.S. Department of the Interior and with the development of new strategies to meet these challenges. Thus, the history of the Center has been dynamic. The Center has been nested within the U.S. Geological Survey since 1996. From 1993 to 1996 the Center was a major unit of the National Biological Service (named the National Biological Survey at its inception). This was a period of great organizational flux. During that time the Center comprised multiple field stations and science functions that prior to 1993 had been scattered among the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, the National Park Service, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. In 1993, certain biological research components of these agencies were assigned to join with the National Ecology Research Center, formerly one of the major research and development hubs of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. This was the year when biological resources research in the U.S. Department of the Interior was consolidated by the Secretary of the Interior, who in an April 1993 memo explaining his intentions wrote, "Our Department has, without doubt, the best biologists in the world." Soon after formation of the new agency, the Center was re-named the Midcontinent Ecological Science Center, reflecting its geographic location within the new Midcontinent administrative region of the National Biological Service (the other three original administrative regions were the eastern, western, and southern). The change in name to the Fort Collins Science Center took place in 2002, soon after the center moved to new facilities on the Colorado State University Natural Resources Research Campus. At various times during the period when it was part of the National Biological Service (1993–96), the Center served as the administrative and programmatic home base for a wide number of science activities in numerous Western states (table 1). This reflected the previous fragmentation of biological and related science efforts across resource management agencies in the U.S. Department of the Interior. The organization of the 2 Center within the National Biological Service was a manifestation of the desire of the Secretary of the Interior to consolidate its biological science activities in administratively independent entities that would ensure that the science retained its objectivity. Congress later recognized the need to maintain a hierarchical independence between biological science and resource management in the Department. However, Congress also saw that the U.S. Geological Survey, with its long history of objective science support to the nation in geology, water resources, geography, and remote sensing, was a suitable alternative home for these biological science functions. Thus, in 1996 Congress transferred the biological resources functions of the National Biological Service to the U.S. Geological Survey. Detailed overviews and opinions about the history and policy issues surrounding the formation and subsequent fate of the National Biological Service can be found elsewhere (for example Cohn, 1993, 2005; Kaufman, 1993; Kreeger, 1994; Pulliam, 1995, 1998a,b; Reichhardt, 1994; Wagner, 1999)

Open-File Report↗
USGS2004

Evaluation of strategies for balancing water use and streamflow reductions in the upper Charles River basin, eastern Massachusetts

The upper Charles River basin, located 30 miles southwest of Boston, Massachusetts, is experiencing water shortages during the summer. Towns in the basin have instituted water-conservation programs and water-use bans to reduce summertime water use. During July through October, streamflow in the Charles River and its tributaries regularly falls below 0.50 cubic foot per second per square mile, the minimum streamflow used by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as its Aquatic Base Flow standard for maintaining healthy freshwater ecosystems. To examine how human water use could be changed to mitigate these water shortages, a numerical ground-water flow model was modified and used in conjunction with response coefficients and optimization techniques. Streamflows at 10 locations on the Charles River and its tributaries were determined under various water-use scenarios and climatic conditions. A variety of engineered solutions to the water shortages were examined for their ability to increase water supplies and summertime streamflows. Results indicate that although human water use contributes to the problem of low summertime streamflows, human water use is not the only, or even the primary, cause of low flows in the basin. The lowest summertime streamflows increase by 12 percent but remain below the Aquatic Base Flow standard when all public water-supply pumpage and wastewater flows in the basin are eliminated in a simulation under average climatic conditions. Under dry climatic conditions, the same measures increase the lowest average monthly streamflow by 95 percent but do not increase it above the Aquatic Base Flow standard. The most promising water-management strategies to increase streamflows and water supplies, based on the study results, include wastewater recharge to the aquifer, altered management of pumping well schedules, regional water-supply sharing, and water conservation. In a scenario that simulated towns sharing water supplies, streamflow in the Charles River as it exits the basin increased by 18 percent during July through September and an excess water-supply capacity of 13.4 cubic feet per second, above and beyond average use, would be available to all towns in the basin. These study results could help water suppliers and regulators evaluate strategies for balancing ground-water development and streamflow reductions in the basin.

Massachusetts↗
USGS2021

Optimization of salt marsh management at the Long Island National Wildlife Refuge Complex, New York, through use of structured decision making

Structured decision making is a systematic, transparent process for improving the quality of complex decisions by identifying measurable management objectives and feasible management actions; predicting the potential consequences of management actions relative to the stated objectives; and selecting a course of action that maximizes the total benefit achieved and balances tradeoffs among objectives. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, applied an existing, regional framework for structured decision making to develop a prototype tool for optimizing tidal marsh management decisions at the Long Island National Wildlife Refuge Complex in New York. Refuge biologists, refuge managers, and research scientists identified multiple potential management actions to improve the ecological integrity of five marsh management units within the refuge complex and estimated the outcomes of each action in terms of performance metrics associated with each management objective. Value functions previously developed at the regional level were used to transform metric scores to a common utility scale, and utilities were summed to produce a single score representing the total management benefit that could be accrued from each potential management action. Constrained optimization was used to identify the set of management actions, one per marsh management unit, that could maximize total management benefits at different cost constraints at the refuge-complex scale. Results indicated that, for the objectives and actions considered here, total management benefits may increase consistently up to about $24,000 , but that further expenditures may yield diminishing return on investment. Potential management actions in optimal portfolios at total costs less than $24,000 consistently included approaches for increasing drainage from the marsh surface within the marsh management units. The potential management benefits were derived from expected improvements in surface-water drainage and capacity for marsh elevation to keep pace with sea-level rise, and presumed increases in numbers of spiders (as an indicator of trophic health) and tidal marsh obligate birds. The prototype presented here does not resolve management decisions; rather, it provides a framework for decision making at the Long Island National Wildlife Refuge Complex that can be updated as new data and information become available. Insights from this process may also be useful to inform future habitat management planning at the refuges.

New York↗
USGS2007

Pygmy rabbit surveys on state lands in Oregon

The pygmy rabbit (Brachylagus idahoensis) is classified by the federal government as a species of concern (i.e., under review by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for consideration as a candidate for listing as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act) because of its specialized habitat requirements and evidence of declining populations. The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) lists pygmy rabbits as “sensitive-vulnerable,” meaning that protective measures are needed if sustainable populations are to be maintained over time (Oregon Natural Heritage Program, 2001). The Oregon Natural Heritage Program considers this species to be threatened with extirpation from Oregon. Pygmy rabbits also are a species of concern in all the other states where they occur (NatureServe, 2004). The Washington population, known as the Columbia Basin pygmy rabbit, was listed as endangered by the federal government in 2003. Historically, pygmy rabbits have been collected from Deschutes, Klamath, Crook, Lake, Grant, Harney, Baker, and Malheur Counties in Oregon. However, the geographic range of pygmy rabbit in Oregon may have decreased in historic times (Verts and Carraway, 1998), and boundaries of the current distribution are not known. Not all potentially suitable sites appear to be occupied, and populations are susceptible to rapid declines and local extirpation (Weiss and Verts, 1984). In order to protect and manage remaining populations on State of Oregon lands, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife needs to identify areas currently occupied by pygmy rabbits, as well as suitable habitats. The main objective of this survey was document to presence or absence of pygmy rabbits on state lands in Malheur, Harney, Lake, and Deschutes counties. Knowledge of the location and extent of pygmy rabbit populations can provide a foundation for the conservation and management of this species in Oregon. The pygmy rabbit is just one of a suite of species of concern associated with sagebrush habitats in the Great Basin. Because information on habitat and distribution of many species is scarce, a secondary goal of the rabbit surveys was to list all other vertebrate species encountered on surveyed sites. This information may be useful in directing future studies aimed at specific taxa.

Open-File Report↗
USGS2016

Improve wildlife species tracking—Implementing an enhanced global positioning system data management system for California condors

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) staff in the Pacific Southwest Region and at the Hopper Mountain National Wildlife Refuge Complex requested technical assistance to improve their global positioning system (GPS) data acquisition, management, and archive in support of the California Condor Recovery Program. The USFWS deployed and maintained GPS units on individual Gymnogyps californianus (California condor) in support of long-term research and daily operational monitoring and management of California condors. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) obtained funding through the Science Support Program to provide coordination among project participants, provide GPS Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) transmitters for testing, and compare GSM/GPS with existing Argos satellite GPS technology. The USFWS staff worked with private companies to design, develop, and fit condors with GSM/GPS transmitters. The Movebank organization, an online database of animal tracking data, coordinated with each of these companies to automatically stream their GPS data into Movebank servers and coordinated with USFWS to improve Movebank software for managing transmitter data, including proofing/error checking of incoming GPS data. The USGS arranged to pull raw GPS data from Movebank into the USGS California Condor Management and Analysis Portal (CCMAP) ( https://my.usgs.gov/ccmap ) for production and dissemination of a daily map of condor movements including various automated alerts. Further, the USGS developed an automatic archiving system for pulling raw and proofed Movebank data into USGS ScienceBase to comply with the Federal Information Security Management Act of 2002. This improved data management system requires minimal manual intervention resulting in more efficient data flow from GPS data capture to archive status. As a result of the project’s success, Pinnacles National Park and the Ventana Wildlife Society California condor programs became partners and adopted the same workflow, tracking, and data archive system. This GPS tracking data management model and workflow should be applicable and beneficial to other wildlife tracking programs.

California↗
USGS2010

Channel Maintenance and Flushing Flows for the Klamath River Below Iron Gate Dam, California

The Klamath River is a major river in northern California and southern Oregon. Iron Gate Dam divides the river into the two subunits where there is a significant change in utilization of the river. Downstream of Iron Gate Dam, the river is very important for the propagation of salmon. To address concerns relating to substrate conditions in the mainstem Klamath River below Iron Gate Dam, the Arcata, California, office of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service contracted with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to determine flushing flows required to improve and maintain quality spawning and rearing habitats for salmon, and to reduce the abundance of preferred habitats of the polychaete worm suspected of being the intermediate host for Ceratomyxa shasta, a species of bacteria that infects fish. Historically, the river has had the capacity to move sediment just below Iron Gate Reservoir, but there have been periods when the capacity was very low. The results indicate that if the future is more like the pre-1961 period (low transport capacity) than the more recent period, there will be significant sediment issues in the Klamath River below Iron Gate Dam. It seems that during normal or wet years, winter months, and periods of high flow, sediments are flushed either downstream or deposited on higher surfaces. The recent drought conditions during 2000-2005 probably resulted in extensive fine-grained sedimentation along the river, which in turn may have caused increased establishment of aquatic vegetation and increased concentrations of C. shasta. It appears that releases from Iron Gate Dam as far downstream as Seiad Valley are important in maintaining flow conditions to flush the fines and clean the gravels in the river during summer months, or during drought years. Sediment transport studies indicate that supplemental flows during dry or drought conditions may provide some flushing flows in reaches downstream of the dam. For purposes of flushing fine sediments during drought years or dry summer months, flows in the range of 2,500-5,000 cubic feet per second during a period of days may be necessary. Providing these types of flows in a manner similar to a storm pulse would provide the best opportunity to flush the fines and clean some of the gravels given the upper ranges of flows are achieved.

Open-File Report↗