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45 records · Page 3Linked to original sources
USGS2026

Shallow differentiation of primitive arc magmas at the Jurassic Emigrant Gap mafic complex, Sierra Nevada, California

The Emigrant Gap composite pluton exposes ultramafic to silicic intrusive rocks that preserve the chemical evolution of primitive mafic arc magmas and their open-system interactions in the upper crust during mid-Jurassic growth of the Sierra Nevada batholith (California). We present field and petrographic observations and mineral and whole-rock chemistry of the ~35-km 2 ultramafic to dioritic Emigrant Gap mafic complex and an adjacent penecontemporaneous ~90-km 2 granodiorite that together make up the composite pluton. In the Emigrant Gap mafic complex, four roughly central masses of dunite, wehrlite, and olivine clinopyroxenite are surrounded by weakly layered gabbronorite and non-layered diorite. The ultramafic rocks are cumulates formed from near-liquidus minerals of primitive arc magmas that accumulated in steep feeder zones with substantial modification by melt–mush reaction as primitive liquids repeatedly transited the mush-filled conduits. The dominant gabbronoritic rocks are the variably accumulative products of more advanced crystallization–differentiation of arc tholeiitic basalts and basaltic andesites. The adjacent granodiorite intrusion originated separately and preserves field and geochemical evidence for assimilation of metasedimentary rocks. Open-system hybridization between the gabbronoritic mushes and the granodioritic magma produced an intervening body of two-pyroxene diorite. We infer that the ultramafic rocks and gabbronorite of the Emigrant Gap mafic complex crystallized from near-primitive arc basaltic to basaltic andesitic magmas at ~0.15–0.3 GPa, with estimated f O 2 of ≥FMQ +1 and dissolved H 2 O concentrations of only ~0.5–2 wt %. Notably, the Emigrant Gap composite pluton is distinct from other Mesozoic plutons in the Sierra Nevada batholith because of (1) its abundance of mafic and ultramafic rocks that crystallized from relatively primitive mafic melts and (2) the low inferred H 2 O concentrations of its parental magmas, indicated by a near absence of igneous amphibole and by the intermediate rather than calcic compositions of plagioclase. A Jurassic regional extension event probably accounts for the formation of relatively dry primitive arc magmas, as well as for their ascending to the upper crust.

California↗
USGS2021

Proportions, timing, and re-equilibration progress during the 1959 Summit Eruption of Kīlauea: An example of magma mixing processes operating during OIB petrogenesis

Petrographic and chemical analysis of scoria samples collected during the 1959 Kīlauea summit eruption illustrates the progress of thermal and chemical homogenization of the melts, and the gradual growth and/or re-equilibration of olivine phenocrysts, over the course of the eruption. Glass compositions show that thermal equilibration was largely complete within the span of the eruption, whereas chemical homogenization was a work in progress. The olivine phenocryst population, known to contain conspicuous antecrystic components, is also hybrid within the euhedral population. The bulk of the olivine reached the level of the erupting magma on November 18–19, 1959. Zoning patterns in olivine phenocrysts show that initially unzoned grains developed normal zoning by the end of the eruption. Reverse zoning in relatively Fe-rich olivine phenocrysts (interpreted as cognate to the stored magma) was progressively eliminated from November 21 to December 19, 1959, by diffusive re-equilibration between crystals and melt. Toward the end of the eruption, the only olivine composition in direct contact with the melt was Fo 84–86 , with the original rim compositional heterogeneity gone in 4–5 weeks’ time. Activity in December 1959 differed from that in November, as high fountaining events were more closely spaced and almost all samples were picritic, with bulk MgO ≥16·5 wt%. Three different levels were in play during the 1959 eruption: a deep source for high-MgO melts and forsteritic (Fo 87–89 ) olivines, an intermediate source for the bulk of the stored magma, and a shallower source for the most differentiated magma. This model is consistent with geophysical, petrological and chemical observations. Comparison of the 1959 eruption with results from older explosive deposits suggests that stored and recharge melts and olivine from the deeper parts of Kīlauea’s plumbing are similar in composition to those observed or inferred in the 1959 eruption, so they behave similarly during extrusive and explosive periods alike.

Hawaii↗
USGS2007

Compositional zoning of the Bishop Tuff

Compositional data for >400 pumice clasts, organized according to eruptive sequence, crystal content, and texture, provide new perspectives on eruption and pre-eruptive evolution of the >600 km 3 of zoned rhyolitic magma ejected as the Bishop Tuff during formation of Long Valley caldera. Proportions and compositions of different pumice types are given for each ignimbrite package and for the intercalated plinian pumice-fall layers that erupted synchronously. Although withdrawal of the zoned magma was less systematic than previously realized, the overall sequence displays trends toward greater proportions of less evolved pumice, more crystals (0·5–24 wt %), and higher FeTi-oxide temperatures (714–818°C). No significant hiatus took place during the 6 day eruption of the Bishop Tuff, nearly all of which issued from an integrated, zoned, unitary reservoir. Shortly before eruption, however, the zoned melt-dominant portion of the chamber was invaded by batches of disparate lower-silica rhyolite magma, poorer in crystals than most of the resident magma but slightly hotter and richer in Ba, Sr, and Ti. Interaction with resident magma at the deepest levels tapped promoted growth of Ti-rich rims on quartz, Ba-rich rims on sanidine, and entrapment of near-rim melt inclusions relatively enriched in Ba and CO 2 . Varied amounts of mingling, even in higher parts of the chamber, led to the dark gray and swirly crystal-poor pumices sparsely present in all ash-flow packages. As shown by FeTi-oxide geothermometry, the zoned rhyolitic chamber was hottest where crystal-richest, rendering any model of solidification fronts at the walls or roof unlikely. The main compositional gradient (75–195 ppm Rb; 0·8–2·2 ppm Ta; 71–154 ppm Zr; 0·40–1·73% FeO*) existed in the melt, prior to crystallization of the phenocryst suite observed, which included zircon as much as 100 kyr older than the eruption. The compositions of crystals, though themselves largely unzoned, generally reflect magma temperature and the bulk compositional gradient, implying both that few crystals settled or were transported far and that the observed crystals contributed little to establishing that gradient. Upward increases in aqueous gas and dissolved water, combined with the adiabatic gradient (for the ∼ 5 km depth range tapped) and the roofward decline in liquidus temperature of the zoned melt, prevented significant crystallization against the roof, consistent with dominance of crystal-poor magma early in the eruption and lack of any roof-rind fragments among the Bishop ejecta, before or after onset of caldera collapse. A model of secular incremental zoning is advanced wherein numerous batches of crystal-poor melt were released from a mush zone (many kilometers thick) that floored the accumulating rhyolitic melt-rich body. Each batch rose to its own appropriate level in the melt-buoyancy gradient, which was self-sustaining against wholesale convective re-homogenization, while the thick mush zone below buffered it against disruption by the deeper (non-rhyolitic) recharge that augmented the mush zone and thermally sustained the whole magma chamber. Crystal–melt fractionation was the dominant zoning process, but it took place not principally in the shallow melt-rich body but mostly in the pluton-scale mush zone before and during batchwise melt extraction.

California↗
USGS2019

A ship's ballasting history as an indicator of foraminiferal invasion potential--An example from Prince William Sound, Alaska, USA

We investigated the potential role of ballast sediment from coastal and transoceanic oil tankers arriving and de-ballasting in Port Valdez as a vector for the introduction of invasive benthic foraminifera in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Forty-one ballast sediment samples were obtained in 1998-1999 from 11 oil tankers that routinely discharged their ballast in Prince William Sound after sailing from other West Coast (Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor, San Francisco Bay, and Puget Sound) or foreign ports (Japan, Korea, and China) where they originally ballasted. Forty of these samples contained benthic foraminifera, including 27 (66%) with the introduced species Trochammina hadai Uchio from nine (81%) of the ships. In all, 59 species were recovered and foraminiferal abundance peaked at 27,000 specimens per gram dry sediment. Of the 41 samples, three were stained and living benthic foraminifera were recovered in all three of them. The entrained foraminifera reflected the number of times ballasting occurred (single or multiple sources), the location of ballasting (estuarine or offshore), and post-acquisition alteration of the sediment (i.e., growth of gypsum crystals at the possible expense of calcareous tests). In temperate regions, sediment samples resulting from single-source ballasting in estuaries (SSBE), multiple-source ballasting in estuaries (MSBE), single-source ballasting offshore (SSBO), and a combination of SSBO and SSBE or MSBE, typically contained increasingly higher species richness, respectively. The potential for an invasion is dependent on the presence of viable candidates and their survivability, their abundance in the ballasting location, and the number of times ballasting occurs, most of which are evident from the ship’s ballasting history. Trochammina hadai is a good example of a successful invasive in Prince William Sound for the following reasons: 1) the species is abundant enough in West Coast and foreign ports where ballasting occurs that sufficient individuals needed for reproduction may be transported to the receiving waters; 2) Port Valdez, in particular, receives repeated and frequent inoculations from the same source ports where T. hadai is present; 3) large quantities of sediment are taken up by commercial vessels during ballasting and benthic foraminifera occur in abundance in ballast sediment; 4) ballast sediment provides a suitable environment in which benthic foraminifera can survive for extended periods of time during transport; 5) T. hadai flourishes in a wide range of temperatures and environmental conditions that characterize both the ports where ballasting takes place as well as in Port Valdez where de-ballasting occurs; and 6) the species is capable of asexual reproduction and possibly the ability to form a dormant resting stage, both of which have the potential to lower the threshold for colonization. Clearly, ballast sediment is a viable vector for the introduction of T. hadai and other invasives into Alaskan ports and elsewhere worldwide.

Alaska↗
USGS2004

Ultramafic xenoliths from the Bearpaw Mountains, Montana, USA: Evidence for multiple metasomatic events in the lithospheric mantle beneath the Wyoming craton

Ultramafic xenoliths in Eocene minettes of the Bearpaw Mountains volcanic field (Montana, USA), derived from the lower lithosphere of the Wyoming craton, can be divided based on textural criteria into tectonite and cumulate groups. The tectonites consist of strongly depleted spinel lherzolites, harzbugites and dunites. Although their mineralogical compositions are generally similar to those of spinel peridotites in off-craton settings, some contain pyroxenes and spinels that have unusually low Al2O3 contents more akin to those found in cratonic spinel peridotites. Furthermore, the tectonite peridotites have whole-rock major element compositions that tend to be significantly more depleted than non-cratonic mantle spinel peridotites (high MgO, low CaO, Al2O3 and TiO2) and resemble those of cratonic mantle. These compositions could have been generated by up to 30% partial melting of an undepleted mantle source. Petrographic evidence suggests that the mantle beneath the Wyoming craton was re-enriched in three ways: (1) by silicate melts that formed mica websterite and clinopyroxenite veins; (2) by growth of phlogopite from K-rich hydrous fluids; (3) by interaction with aqueous fluids to form orthopyroxene porphyroblasts and orthopyroxenite veins. In contrast to their depleted major element compositions, the tectonite peridotites are mostly light rare earth element (LREE)-enriched and show enrichment in fluid-mobile elements such as Cs, Rb, U and Pb on mantle-normalized diagrams. Lack of enrichment in high field strength elements (HFSE; e.g. Nb, Ta, Zr and Hf) suggests that the tectonite peridotites have been metasomatized by a subduction-related fluid. Clinopyroxenes from the tectonite peridotites have distinct U-shaped REE patterns with strong LREE enrichment. They have 143Nd/144Nd values that range from 0??5121 (close to the host minette values) to 0??5107, similar to those of xenoliths from the nearby Highwood Mountains. Foliated mica websterites also have low 143Nd/144Nd values (0??5113) and extremely high 87Sr/86Sr ratios in their constituent phlogopite, indicating an ancient (probably mid-Proterozoic) enrichment. This enriched mantle lithosphere later contributed to the formation of the high-K Eocene host magmas. The cumulate group ranges from clinopyroxene-rich mica peridotites (including abundant mica wehrlites) to mica clinopyroxenites. Most contain >30% phlogopite. Their mineral compositions are similar to those of phenocrysts in the host minettes. Their whole-rock compositions are generally poorer in MgO but richer in incompatible trace elements than those of the tectonite peridotites. Whole-rock trace element patterns are enriched in large ion lithophile elements (LILE; Rb, Cs, U and Pb) and depleted in HFSE (Nb, Ta Zr and Hf as in the host minettes, and their Sr-Nd isotopic compositions are also identical to those of the minettes. Their clinopyroxenes are LREE-enriched and formed in equilibrium with a LREE-enriched melt closely resembling the minettes. The cumulates therefore represent a much younger magmatic event, related to crystallization at mantle depths of minette magmas in Eocene times, that caused further metasomatic enrichment of the lithosphere. ?? Oxford University Press 2004; all rights reserved.

Journal of Petrology↗
USGS1998

Comparing sea-ice sediment load with Beaufort Sea shelf deposits: Is entrainment selective?

Modern dispersal of sea-ice-rafted debris (IRD) is important for the Arctic Ocean sediment budget from sources to sinks. Sediment entrainment occurs mainly through the action of small ice crystals (frazil) attaching to sedimentary particles in shallow water, a mechanism that could be selective. The principal source for entrainment of IRD by suspension freezing into the Beaufort Gyre, western Arctic Ocean, is the adjacent shallow (<30 m) shelf, here called the source surface. The texture, clay-mineral composition, coarse sand (<250 micrometers) lithology, and carbon and carbonate content of IRD in the Beaufort Gyre were compared to sediments from the probable source surface, in order to determine whether preferential entrainment occurs with any of these sediment parameters. IRD is generally much finer grained than the source surface, showing that silt- and clay-size particles are preferentially entrained by frazil ice, although anchor ice can locally incorporate very high percentages of sand and coarser clasts. The coarsest IRD is also the most poorly sorted. The clay mineralogy of the <2 micrometer IRD fraction is very similar to that of the source surface, indicating no selective entrainment within the clay fraction. The lithology of sand in IRD also matches that of the source surface, although the number of coarse grains is too small (<100) in most samples for a statistically meaningful count. The average organic-carbon content of IRD is three times higher than that of the source surface, but we attribute this to summer algal growth on ice floes rather than to selective entrainment. A relatively low carbonate content in IRD may be because much of the carbonate in the source is of silt size while about 50% of the IRD measured is clay size. The low carbonate content may also reflect solution under acidic summer conditions on sea ice. Selective export of silt- and clay-size particles by ice rafting from the shallow shelf with time should lead to the formation of a slightly coarser lag, even though some of the dirty ice drops its sediment load in the entrainment area. Further mineralogical and lithological analysis on IRD promises to become a useful tool for the study of sediment dispersal paths by drift ice in the Arctic today and in the past, and also for the study of sources of anthropogenic pollutants found in sea ice.

Beaufort Sea shelf↗
USGS2013

Andesites of the 2009 eruption of Redoubt Volcano, Alaska

Crystal-rich andesites that erupted from Redoubt Volcano in 2009 range from 57.5 to 62.5 wt.% SiO 2 and have phenocryst and phenocryst-melt relations consistent with staging in the upper crust. Early explosive products are low-silica andesites (LSA, < 58 wt.% SiO 2 ) that ascended from deeper crustal levels during or before the 6 months of precursory activity, but a broad subsequent succession to more evolved and cooler products, and predominantly effusive dome growth, are interpreted to result from progressive mobilization and mixing with differentiated magmas tapped from pre-2009 Redoubt intrusions at ~ 3–6 km depth. Initial explosions on March 23–28 ejected predominantly LSA with a uniform phenocryst assemblage of high-Al amphibole, ~ An 70 plagioclase, ortho- and clinopyroxene, FeTi oxides (890 to 960 °C), and traces of magmatic sulfide. Melt in the dominant microlite-poor LSA was compositionally uniform dacite (67–68 wt.% SiO 2 ) but ranged to rhyolite with greater microlite growth. Minor amounts of intermediate- to high-silica andesite (ISA, HSA; 59–62.5 wt.% SiO 2 ) also erupted during the early explosions and most carried rhyolitic melt (72–74 wt.% SiO 2 ). A lava dome grew following the initial tephra-producing events but was destroyed by an explosion on April 4. Ejecta from the April 4 explosion consists entirely of ISA and HSA, as does a subsequent lava dome that grew April 4–July 1; LSA was absent. Andesites from the April 4 event and from the final dome had pre-eruptive temperatures of 725–840 °C (FeTi oxides) and highly evolved matrix liquids (77–80 wt.% SiO 2 ), including in rare microlite-free pyroclasts. ISA has mixed populations of phenocrysts suggesting it is a hybrid between HSA and LSA. The last lavas from the 2009 eruption, effused May 1–July 1, are distinctly depleted in P 2 O 5 , consistent with low temperatures and high degrees of crystallization including apatite. Plagioclase–melt hygrometry and comparison to phase equilibrium experiments are consistent with pre-eruptive storage of all three magma types at 100–160 MPa (4–6 km depth), if they were close to H 2 O-saturation, coincident with the locus of shallow syn-eruptive seismicity. Deeper storage would be indicated if the magmas were CO 2 -rich. Relatively coarse-grained clinopyroxene-rich reaction rims on many LSA amphibole phenocrysts may result from slow ascent to, or storage at, depths shallow enough for the onset of appreciable H 2 O exsolution, consistent with pre-eruptive staging in the uppermost crust. We interpret that the 2009 LSA ascended from depth during the 8 or more months prior to the first eruption, but that the magma stalled and accumulated in the upper crust where its phenocryst rim and melt compositions were established. Ascent of LSA through stagnant mushy intrusions residual from earlier Redoubt activity mobilized differentiated magma pockets and interstitial liquids represented by HSA, and as LSA–HSA hybrids represented by ISA, that fed the subsequently erupted lava domes.

Alaska↗
USGS1988

Ferromanganese deposits from the Gulf of Alaska Seamount Province: Mineralogy, chemistry, and origin

Ferromanganese-oxide deposits dredged from four seamounts (Welker, Miller, Murray, and Patton) in the Gulf of Alaska Seamount Province include poorly crystallized microlaminated crusts on basalt substrate, well-crystallized Mn-oxide veins in epiclastic sedimentary rocks, and crystalline Mn-oxide layers and micronodules in phosphorite. The principal rock types dredged are alkali-basalt pillow fragments and tuffaceous conglomerate and sandstone. The glassy rims of pillow fragments, the glassy goundmass of large volcanic clasts, and the tuffaceous component of the sediment are altered to palagonite. Other low-temperature alteration products include phillipsite, smectite, and carbonate-apatite.Thick (10–50 mm) Fe–Mn crusts consist mainly of δ-MnO 2 ; straight and cuspate growth laminae indicate variable growth rates and periods of nondeposition. A larger number of detrital particles toward the top of thick crusts record the increasing influence of active volcanoes of the Aleutian arc during northwestward movement of the Pacific plate. Thick crusts on basalt substrate have higher Mn/Fe ratios and lower Co content than Fe–Mn crusts from low-latitude seamounts of the central Pacific region. Thin (< 10 mm) crusts on volcaniclastic substrate contain todorokite and birnessite and have higher Mn/Fe ratios, Ni, and Cu and lower Fe and Co than thick Gulf of Alaska crusts.Veins of todorokite and cryptomelane with complex internal structure occur in altered tuffaceous sandstone and conglomerate from Miller Seamount. Fibrous todorokite has a composition similar to those of other marine examples but may contain up to 7% Mn 2+ in M2 sites. Microprobe analysis of the marine cryptomelane indicates a composition that is approximately (K,Ba) 1–2 (Mn 4+ ,Co) 7–8 O 16 ∙ x (H 2 O).A third type of Fe–Mn deposit in phosphorite is an intimate mixture of todorokite (and minor δ-MnO 2 )-bearing layers and micronodules, carbonate-apatite, and phillipsite that encloses grains of altered volcanic glass and lithic fragments.The microlaminated structure, mineralogy (predominantly δ-MnO 2 ), and composition (Mn/Fe ratio and transition metal, rare earth element, U, and Th contents) of the thick crusts are characteristic of hydrogenetic Fe–Mn crusts elsewhere in the Pacific. Conversely, the crystallinity and chemical composition of the Mn-oxide veins and thin crusts indicate formation during diagenesis of the volcanogenic sediment substrate. Mn and other transition metals are mobilized during low-temperature oxidative alteration (palagonitization) of basaltic volcanic glass; the oxidation of Fe 2+ to Fe 3+ during palagonitization and the dissolution of the dilute biogenic fraction of the sediment combine to lower the Eh of ambient pore fluid and enhance the mobility of Mn 2+ . Diagenesis in the phosphatic sandstone from Patton Seamount involves organic-rich sediment and pore waters elevated in phosphorus owing to upwelling above a large volcanic edifice.

Alaska↗
USGS1989

Multiple hydrothermal and metamorphic events in the Kidd Creek volcanogenic massive sulphide deposit, Timmins, Ontario: evidence from tourmalines and chlorites

Tourmaline and chlorite are the principal ferromagnesian silicate minerals in the Kidd Creek massive sulphide deposit. Tourmaline is most common in sphalerite-rich peripheral margins of the chalcopyrite stringer zone. Within the north orebody, samples typically contain <1% tourmaline, but small areas (hand-specimen scale) may have 10–20%. Chlorite is more widely distributed and in places constitutes 30–50% of rock volumes. Associated assemblages may include quartz, sulphides (principally chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and (or) pyrite), carbonate, albite, sericite, and rare fluorite, allanite, or zoisite(?).The tourmalines and chlorites record a series of multiple hydrothermal and metamorphic events. Paragenetic studies suggest that tourmaline was deposited during several discrete stages of mineralization, as evidenced by brecciation and cross-cutting relationships. Most of the tourmalines have two concentric growth zones defined by different colours (green, brown, blue, yellow). Some tourmalines also display pale discordant rims that cross-cut and embay the inner growth zones and polycrystalline, multiple-extinction domains. Late sulphide veinlets (chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite) transect the inner growth zones and pale discordant rims of many crystals. The concentric growth zones are interpreted as primary features developed by the main ore-forming hydrothermal system, whereas the discordant rims, polycrystalline domains, and cross-cutting sulphide veinlets reflect post-ore metamorphic processes.Detailed electron microprobe analyses of tourmalines show a wide compositional range, from Fe-rich dravite nearly to end-member schorl, with Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios varying from 0.33 to 0.92; only minor amounts of Ca are present, yielding uniformly high Na/(Na + Ca) ratios of 0.84–0.99. Two sets of chemical zoning trends are identified in the tourmalines, involving systematic changes in Fe/(Fe + Mg), Na/(Na + Ca), Al, and Ti that are believed to reflect internal coupled substitutions (e.g.,  + Ti = Na + Al) and local mineral equilibria (e.g., tourmaline–chlorite). Analyses of the pale discordant reaction rims show consistent depletion of Fe, Ca, and Ti, presumably by fluid–solid reactions during post-ore metamorphism.Chlorites also show an extensive range in composition, from ripidolite nearly to end-member daphnite, with Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios of 0.43–0.98 and Si cation values of 5.00–5.39. Chlorites from the fringes of the footwall stringer zone have narrow compositional ranges, whereas chlorites near footwall rhyolite sills in the core of the stringer zone display major variations in Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios, including one sample with a range of 0.68–0.95. The former group of chlorites has Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios that correlate well with those of coexisting tourmalines (exclusive of late reaction rims). Data for the latter group, in contrast, fall off equilibrium K D curves, indicating that the tourmalines and chlorites within these samples are not in chemical equilibrium. The chlorites are believed to have been altered (overprinted) by Fe-rich hydrothermal fluids apparently generated during intrusion of the rhyolite sills. The tourmalines, however, are unaffected and retain primary chemical signatures.Variations in mineral proportions and mineral chemistry within the deposit mainly depend on fluctuations in temperature, pH, water/rock ratios, and amounts of entrained seawater. The major proposed control is mixing between high-temperature, Fe-rich end-member hydrothermal fluids and cold, Mg-rich entrained seawater. Fe/(Fe + Mg) variations in footwall tourmalines (and equilibrium chlorites) are believed to largely reflect the progressive infiltration of Mg-rich seawater into the margins and top of the hydrothermal system. The more Fe-rich compositions of Kidd Creek tourmalines relative to those from sediment-hosted massive sulphide deposits (e.g., Sullivan, British Columbia) may be related to the preferential generation of end-member hydrothermal fluids in proximal volcanic environments like that at Kidd Creek.

Ontario↗