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At least 451 records · Page 25Linked to original sources

USGS2013

Conditions favouring Bromus tectorum dominance of endangered sagebrush steppe ecosystems

1. Ecosystem invasibility is determined by combinations of environmental variables, invader attributes, disturbance regimes, competitive abilities of resident species and evolutionary history between residents and disturbance regimes. Understanding the relative importance of each factor is critical to limiting future invasions and restoring ecosystems. 2. We investigated factors potentially controlling Bromus tectorum invasions into Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis communities across 75 sites in the Great Basin. We measured soil texture, cattle grazing intensity, gaps among perennial plants and plant cover including B. tectorum, biological soil crusts (BSCs) and bare soil. Using a priori knowledge, we developed a multivariate hypothesis of the susceptibility of Artemisia ecosystems to B. tectorum invasion and used the model to assess the relative importance of the factors driving the magnitude of such invasions. 3. Model results imply that bunchgrass community structure, abundance and composition, along with BSC cover, play important roles in controlling B. tectorum dominance. Evidence suggests abundant bunchgrasses limit invasions by limiting the size and connectivity of gaps between vegetation, and BSCs appear to limit invasions within gaps. Results also suggest that cattle grazing reduces invasion resistance by decreasing bunchgrass abundance, shifting bunchgrass composition, and thereby increasing connectivity of gaps between perennial plants while trampling further reduces resistance by reducing BSC. 4. Synthesis and applications. Grazing exacerbates Bromus tectorum dominance in one of North America's most endangered ecosystems by adversely impacting key mechanisms mediating resistance to invasion. If the goal is to conserve and restore resistance of these systems, managers should consider maintaining or restoring: (i) high bunchgrass cover and structure characterized by spatially dispersed bunchgrasses and small gaps between them; (ii) a diverse assemblage of bunchgrass species to maximize competitive interactions with B. tectorum in time and space; and (iii) biological soil crusts to limit B. tectorum establishment. Passive restoration by reducing cumulative cattle grazing may be one of the most effective means of achieving these three goals.

Journal of Applied Ecology↗

USGS2012

Concentrations, loads, and yields of organic carbon in streams of agricultural watersheds

Carbon is cycled to and from large reservoirs in the atmosphere, on land, and in the ocean. Movement of organic carbon from the terrestrial reservoir to the ocean plays an important role in the global cycling of carbon. The transition from natural to agricultural vegetation can change the storage and movement of organic carbon in and from a watershed. Samples were collected from 13 streams located in hydrologically and agriculturally diverse watersheds, to better understand the variability in the concentrations and loads of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and particulate organic carbon (POC) in the streams, and the variability in watershed yields. The overall annual median concentrations of DOC and POC were 4.9 (range: 2.1–6.8) and 1.1 (range: 0.4–3.8) mg C L −1 , respectively. The mean DOC watershed yield (± SE) was 25 ± 6.8 kg C ha −1 yr −1 . The yields of DOC from these agricultural watersheds were not substantially different than the DOC yield from naturally vegetated watersheds in equivalent biomes, but were at the low end of the range for most biomes. Total organic carbon (DOC + POC) annually exported from the agricultural watersheds was found to average 0.03% of the organic carbon that is contained in the labile plant matter and top 1 m of soil in the watershed. Since the total organic carbon exported from agricultural watersheds is a relatively small portion of the sequestered carbon within the watershed, there is the great potential to store additional carbon in plants and soils of the watershed, offsetting some anthropogenic CO2 emissions.

California;Indiana;Iowa;Maryl;Mississippi;Nebraska↗

USGS2023

Plants as vectors for environmental prion transmission

Prions cause fatal neurodegenerative diseases and exhibit remarkable durability, which engenders a wide array of potential exposure scenarios. In chronic wasting disease of deer, elk, moose, and reindeer and in scrapie of sheep and goats, prions are transmitted via environmental routes and the ability of plants to accumulate and subsequently transmit prions has been hypothesized, but not previously demonstrated. Here, we establish the ability of several crop and other plant species to take up prions via their roots and translocate them to above-ground tissues from various growth media including soils. We demonstrate that plants can accumulate prions in above-ground tissues to levels sufficient to transmit disease after oral ingestion by mice. Our results suggest plants may serve as vectors for prion transmission in the environment—a finding with implications for wildlife conservation, agriculture, and public health.

iScience↗

USGS2013

Legumes in prairie restoration: evidence for wide cross-nodulation and improved inoculant delivery

Background and aims Prairie restoration aims to create self-sustaining, resilient prairies that ameliorate biodiversity loss and soil deterioration associated with conversion of native grasslands to agriculture. Legumes are a key component of the nitrogen-limited prairie ecosystem. Evidence suggests that lack of suitable rhizobia may explain legume absence from restored prairies. This study explores effects of novel alternative inoculant delivery methods on: (a) prairie legume establishment, (b) soil biological properties, and (c) inoculant strain ability to nodulate the host over time. Methods Alternative inoculation methods for seven legume species were tested in a replicated field experiment. Legume establishment, microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen, and rhizobial inoculant strain recovery were measured over a 3-year period. Results Legume species richness in the second growing season was enhanced by a soil-applied granular clay inoculant, while seed-applied powdered peat inoculation was generally ineffective. When Dalea rhizobia were recovered 3-year after planting, only 2 % from the seed-applied inoculation treatment identified with the inoculant strains, whereas this amount ranged from 53 to 100 % in the other inoculation treatments. Some legumes established unexpectedly effective symbioses with strains not originally intended for them. Conclusions Results provide new insights on inoculation of native legumes, especially when a mix of seeds is involved and the restoration targets harsh environments.

Minnesota↗

USGS2023

Relationships among rare plant communities and abiotic conditions in managed spring-fed arid wetlands

Spring-fed wetlands within arid and semiarid systems are hotspots for endemism and distribution of rare plants. Interactions among groundwater and the geomorphic and climatic features of the setting control the abiotic conditions, particularly soil salinity and moisture, that support these plants. However, water uncertainty and land use change challenge the persistence of conditions necessary to support rare plant communities. Wetland management can be implemented to sustain abiotic processes that support rare plant communities, but key information is needed to guide management practices. In this study, we evaluate the relationships of rare plants to abiotic conditions in a managed spring-fed arid wetland. Soil salinity and moisture conditions were monitored and related to the presence and abundance of rare plants within management units. Soil salinity and moisture variability were related to groundwater dynamics near springs, but wetland management influenced variability in seasonally flooded areas. Permanently saturated conditions and low soil salinities during the spring season supported higher plant diversity and the presence and greater abundance of rare plants. Rare plant presence and abundance were negatively related to low soil moisture, particularly in the summer. Results indicate that increases in soil salinity during the early establishment of plants may affect their distribution and abundance, an important management consideration in arid landscapes and hydrologically altered systems. Our findings inform the restoration and management of rare plant communities and contribute to the management of spring-fed arid wetlands.

New Mexico↗

USGS2008

Seasonal and spatial variability in dissolved organic matter quantity and composition from the Yukon River basin, Alaska

[1] The seasonal and spatial variability of dissolved organic matter (DOM) quantity and chemical composition were investigated in the Yukon River basin of Alaska, United States, and northwestern Canada. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), chromophoric DOM (CDOM), and dissolved lignin phenols were measured across a range of source waters and the seasonal hydrograph. Strong relationships were determined between CDOM and both DOC and lignin phenols, highlighting the potential for deriving detailed spatial and temporal distributions of DOM composition from CDOM monitoring. Maximum concentrations of measured parameters were observed during the spring flush, when DOM had a remarkably high content of aromatic vascular plant material derived from surface soil and litter layers. A larger portion of riverine DOM was attributed to vascular plant sources than previously believed by utilizing representative vegetation leachates and a soil pore water as end‐members. In combination with recent studies highlighting export of young, labile DOM during the spring flush in northern high‐latitude river systems, our results suggest riverine DOM is less degraded and more labile than previously thought with clear ramifications for its biomineralization or photo‐oxidation in marine environments.

Global Biogeochemical Cycles↗

USGS1999

Interaction of soil moisture and seedling shelters on water relations of baldcypress seedlings

Stomata1 conductance, transpiration, and leaf water potential were measured during the 1996 growing season on baldcypress ( Taxodium disfichum (L.) Rich.) seedlings. Seedlings were hand-planted from 1-O bareroot stock in mesic and permanently Rooded soil conditions. One-half of all seedlings were fitted with 122-cm tall polyethylene tree shelters, Seedlings were planted 1 year before the initiation of plant water relation measurements. The study was located within the boundary of the Longhorn Army Ammunition Plant, Kamack, TX. The objective of the research was to study the feasibility of artificially regenerating baldcypress along the shores of Caddo Lake. Stomata1 conductance and transpiration were consistently higher in seedlings planted in mesic soils versus seedlings planted in permanently flooded soils. Seedlings fitted with shelters regularly had higher stomatal conductance and transpiration then seedlings without shelters. Leaf water potential showed little consistency among treatments.

Louisiana, Texas↗

USGS2006

Direct effects of soil amendments on field emergence and growth of the invasive annual grass Bromus tectorum L. and the native perennial grass Hilaria jamesii (Torr.) Benth

Bromus tectorum L. is a non-native, annual grass that has invaded western North America. In SE Utah, B. tectorum generally occurs in grasslands dominated by the native perennial grass, Hilaria jamesii (Torr.) Benth. and rarely where the natives Stipa hymenoides Roem. and Schult. and S. comata Trin. & Rupr. are dominant. This patchy invasion is likely due to differences in soil chemistry. Previous laboratory experiments investigated using soil amendments that would allow B. tectorum to germinate but would reduce B. tectorum emergence without affecting H. jamesii. For this study we selected the most successful treatments (CaCl2, MgCl2, NaCl and zeolite) from a previous laboratory study and applied them in the field in two different years at B. tectorum-dominated field sites. All amendments except the lowest level of CaCl2 and zeolite negatively affected B. tectorum emergence and/or biomass. No amendments negatively affected the biomass of H. jamesii but NaCl reduced emergence. Amendment effectiveness depended on year of application and the length of time since application. The medium concentration of zeolite had the strongest negative effect on B. tectorum with little effect on H. jamesii. We conducted a laboratory experiment to determine why zeolite was effective and found it released large amounts of Na+, adsorbed Ca2+, and increased Zn2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Cu2+, exchangeable Mg2+, exchangeable K, and NH 4+ in the soil. Our results suggest several possible amendments to control B. tectorum. However, variability in effectiveness due to abiotic factors such as precipitation and soil type must be accounted for when establishing management plans. ?? Springer 2006.

Plant and Soil↗

USGS2010

Shifting microbial community structure across a marine terrace grassland chronosequence, Santa Cruz, California

Changes in the biomass and structure of soil microbial communities have the potential to impact ecosystems via interactions with plants and weathering minerals. Previous studies of forested long-term (1000s – 100,000s of years) chronosequences suggest that surface microbial communities change with soil age. However, significant gaps remain in our understanding of long-term soil microbial community dynamics, especially for non-forested ecosystems and in subsurface soil horizons. We investigated soil chemistry, aboveground plant productivity, and soil microbial communities across a grassland chronosequence (65,000–226,000 yrs old) located near Santa Cruz, CA. Aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) initially increased to a maximum and then decreased for the older soils. We used polar lipid fatty acids (PLFA) to investigate microbial communities including both surface (<0.1 m) and subsurface (≥0.2 m) soil horizons. PLFAs characteristic of Gram-positive bacteria and actinobacteria increased as a fraction of the microbial community with depth while the fungal fraction decreased relative to the surface. Differences among microbial communities from each chronosequence soil were found primarily in the subsurface where older subsurface soils had smaller microbial community biomass, a higher proportion of fungi, and a different community structure than the younger subsurface soil. Subsurface microbial community shifts in biomass and community structure correlated with, and were likely driven by, decreasing soil P availability and Ca concentrations, respectively. Trends in soil chemistry as a function of soil age led to the separation of the biological (≤1 m depth) and geochemical (>1 m) cycles in the old, slowly eroding landscape we investigated, indicating that this separation, commonly observed in tropical and subtropical ecosystems, can also occur in temperate climates. This study is the first to investigate subsurface microbial communities in a long-term chronosequence. Our results highlight connections between soil chemistry and both the aboveground and belowground parts of an ecosystem.

California↗

USGS2012

Groundwater quality in the Columbia Plateau, Snake River Plain, and Oahu basaltic-rock and basin-fill aquifers in the Northwestern United States and Hawaii, 1992-2010

This assessment of groundwater-quality conditions of the Columbia Plateau, Snake River Plain, and Oahu for the period 1992–2010 is part of the U.S. Geological Survey’s National Water Quality Assessment (NAWQA) program. It shows where, when, why, and how specific water-quality conditions occur in groundwater of the three study areas and yields science-based implications for assessing and managing the quality of these water resources. The primary aquifers in the Columbia Plateau, Snake River Plain, and Oahu are mostly composed of fractured basalt, which makes their hydrology and geochemistry similar. In spite of the hydrogeologic similarities, there are climatic differences that affect the agricultural practices overlying the aquifers, which in turn affect the groundwater quality. Understanding groundwater-quality conditions and the natural and human factors that control groundwater quality is important because of the implications to human health, the sustainability of rural agricultural economies, and the substantial costs associated with land and water management, conservation, and regulation. The principal regional aquifers of the Columbia Plateau, Snake River Plain, and Oahu are highly vulnerable to contamination by chemicals applied at the land surface; essentially, they are as vulnerable as many shallow surficial aquifers elsewhere. The permeable and largely unconfined character of principal aquifers in the Columbia Plateau, Snake River Plain, and Oahu allow water and chemicals to infiltrate to the water table despite depths to water commonly in the hundreds of feet. The aquifers are essentially unconfined over large areas, having few extensive clay layers to impede infiltration through permeable volcanic rock and alluvial sediments. Agriculture is intensive in all three study areas, and heavy irrigation has imposed large artificial flows of irrigation recharge that rival or exceed natural recharge rates. Fertilizers and pesticides applied at land surface are leached from soil and transported to deep water tables with the infiltrating irrigation recharge, resulting in a layer of degraded water quality overlying better quality regional groundwater beneath. This “irrigation-recharge layer” is best known on Oahu, where it has been studied since the 1960s; however, the extent of nitrate and pesticide contamination in the Columbia Plateau and Snake River Plain indicate that the same situation exists in those areas. Contamination from agricultural and urban activities is present not only at shallow depths in surficial materials of the three areas, but extends regionally in the deep, principal bedrock aquifers that are tapped for drinking water by domestic and public-supply wells. Naturally occurring constituents and nitrate concentrations above human-health benchmarks—Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs), and Health-Based Screening Levels (HBSLs)—were more common in the Columbia Plateau and the Snake River Plain than in Oahu. Concentrations of anthropogenic constituents (constituents related to human activities) above human-health benchmarks were more common in Oahu. Naturally occurring contaminants, such as arsenic and radon, may be present in groundwater at concentrations of potential concern for human health in relatively undeveloped settings that otherwise may not be perceived as susceptible to contamination. Even though the median depth to groundwater in Oahu is more than 300 feet, the common occurrence of anthropogenic compounds in groundwater indicates that Oahu has a high susceptibility to contamination. Nitrate concentrations in groundwater were above the national background concentrations of 1 milligram per liter (mg/L) in all three study areas. In the Columbia Plateau, nitrate exceeded the human-health benchmark of 10 mg/L in 20 percent of the wells sampled. In the Snake River Plain, nitrate exceeded the human-health benchmark of 10 mg/L in 3 percent of the wells sampled. Nitrate can persist in groundwater for years and even decades in the oxygen-rich groundwater of the Columbia Plateau and the Snake River Plain, so prudent groundwater protection measures are critical to protect drinking water resources by reducing nitrate leaching from the land surface. Nitrate logistic regression models indicated that areas with a high percentage of land in crops (such as potatoes or sugarcane) and soils with low amounts of organic matter are most likely to have elevated nitrate concentrations in the groundwater. Areas where agricultural activities were absent had much lower probabilities of detecting elevated nitrate concentrations. The Columbia Plateau had a much higher probability of having elevated nitrate concentrations, with most of the land area having greater than a 50 percent probability of elevated nitrate concentrations. Oahu and the Snake River Plain had a much lower probability of having elevated nitrate concentrations because of their lower percentage of agricultural land. Pesticides were detected at many sites in groundwater of the Columbia Plateau, Snake River Plain, and Oahu but generally at low concentrations below human-health benchmarks. Atrazine and its degradate (a compound produced from the breakdown of a parent pesticide), deethylatrazine, were the most commonly detected pesticides in groundwater sampled in the Columbia Plateau and Snake River Plain. Bromacil was the most commonly detected pesticide on Oahu. The other pesticides most commonly detected in the study areas include simazine, hexazinone, metribuzin, diuron, prometon, metolachlor, p,p’ -DDE, dieldrin, 2-4-D, and alachlor. DDE (a degradate of DDT) and dieldrin are still being detected in groundwater despite having been banned for more than 30 years. Codetection of multiple pesticides in water from a single well was common. The widespread occurrence of pesticides in groundwater in the study areas indicates that the groundwater is highly susceptible to pesticide contamination. Some pesticides were detected in groundwater samples from all three study areas, but other pesticides were detected only in samples from Oahu, or only in samples from the Columbia Plateau and Snake River Plain. This is because some pesticides (such as atrazine) are broad-spectrum pesticides that are used on many crops in many different areas of the United States. Other pesticides (such as simazine, metribuzin, and metolachlor) are used on row crops (such as potatoes, barley, and alfalfa) grown in the Columbia Plateau and Snake River Plain, but not on pineapple or sugarcane grown in Oahu. Atrazine logistic-regression models indicate that areas with a high percentage of land in crops (such as potatoes or sugarcane), a low percentage of fallow land, and highly permeable soils with low amounts of organic matter are most likely to have atrazine detected in the groundwater. Areas where agricultural activities were absent had much lower probabilities of atrazine being detected. The Snake River Plain had a much higher probability of atrazine detections, with more than 50 percent of the land area having greater than a 50 percent probability of atrazine contamination. Oahu had a much lower probability of atrazine contamination, with only 24 percent of the land area having greater than a 50 percent probability of atrazine contamination. Oahu and the Columbia Plateau had some of the highest percentages of soil fumigant detections in groundwater in the United States. Soil fumigants are volatile organic compounds (VOCs) used as pesticides, which are applied to soils to reduce populations of plant parasitic nematodes (harmful rootworms), weeds, fungal pathogens, and other soil-borne microorganisms. They are used in Oahu and the Columbia Plateau on crops such as pineapple and potatoes. All three areas (Columbia Plateau, Snake River Plain, and Oahu) had fumigant concentrations exceeding human-health benchmarks for drinking water.

Hawai'i, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, ↗

USGS1999

Health of native riparian vegetation and its relation to hydrologic conditions along the Mojave River, southern California

The health of native riparian vegetation and its relation to hydrologic conditions were studied along the Mojave River mainly during the growing seasons of 1997 and 1998. The study concentrated on cottonwood-willow woodlands (predominantly Populus fremontii and Salix gooddingii ) and mesquite bosques (predominantly Prosopis glandulosa ). Tree-growth characteristics were measured at 16 cottonwood-willow woodland sites and at 3 mesquite bosque sites. Density of live and dead trees, tree diameter and height, canopy density, live-crown volume, leaf-water potential, leaf-area index, mortality, and reproduction were measured or noted at each site. The sites included healthy and reproducing woodlands and bosques, stressed woodlands and bosques with no reproduction, and woodlands and bosques with high mortality. Tree roots were studied at seven sites to determine the vertical distribution of the root system and their relation to the water table at healthy, stressed, and high-mortality cottonwood-willow woodlands. In the six trenches that were dug for this study in May 1997, no cottonwood roots were observed that reached the water table. The root systems of healthy trees typically ended 1 to 2 feet above the water table. At sites with high mortality, the main root mass was commonly 7 to 8 feet above the water table. Water-table depth was monitored at each of the study sites. In addition, volumetric soil moisture and soil-water potential were monitored at varying depths at three cottonwood-willow woodland study sites and at two mesquite bosque sites. Ground, soil, river, lake, and plant (xylem sap) water were analyzed for concentrations of stable hydrogen and oxygen isotopes to determine the source of water used by the trees. On the basis of the root-distribution, soil- and leaf-water potential, and isotope data, it was concluded that cottonwood, willow, and mesquite trees mainly rely on ground water for their perennial sustained supply of water. The trees mainly utilize ground water that has moved upward from the water table into the capillary fringe and into unsaturated soil nearer to land surface. Most precipitation (average is 4 to 6 inches per year) is lost by evaporation and by transpiration of shallow-rooted xeric plants, and very little reaches the root zone of trees along the Mojave River. Water-table depth had no strong correlation to many individual tree-growth characteristics, such as density, diameter, height, and live-crown volume. However, leaf-area index (corrected for stem area) of both healthy and stressed cottonwood-willow woodlands had a highly significant statistical relation to water-table depth, and a curvilinear regression model was defined. As in cottonwood-willow woodlands, leaf-area index of mesquite bosques also decreased with increased water-table depth. However, because of the small number of sites, no significant statistical relation could be defined for mesquite bosques. Because it can be accurately measured repeatedly at the same locations, leaf-area index (corrected for stem area) is recommended as the primary growth characteristic that should be monitored. Future vegetation changes along the Mojave River can be quantified using the sites established for this study. Mortality was as high as 39 percent in healthy cottonwood-willow woodlands, but mortality of 50 to 100 percent was common where water-table depth was greater than about 7 feet or in areas where permanent water-table declines greater than about 5 feet had occurred. At a healthy mesquite bosque where the water-table depth ranged from about 8 to 11 feet, mortality was about 20 percent. Where the water table had been lowered an additional 10 to 25 feet by pumping, mortality of the mesquite was extremely high (80 to 99 percent). On the basis of observations of plant reproduction, it was concluded that established cottonwood-willow woodlands probably will reproduce, mainly by root sprouting of mature trees, if the water-table depth during spring and early summer is less than about 5 feet and if there is sufficient sunlight. Likewise, reproduction in established mesquite bosques will probably occur by root sprouting if the water-table depth during spring and early summer is less than about 8 feet. Germination of cottonwood and willow seeds is common during spring in dry channels following winter stormflows in the Mojave River. However, most of the seedlings die before their roots reach a perennial water supply near the water table, and established stands of trees resulting from seed germination are rare.

California↗

USGS2020

Integrating the evidence for a terrestrial carbon sink caused by increasing atmospheric CO2

Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration ([CO 2 ]) is increasing, which increases leaf‐scale photosynthesis and intrinsic water‐use efficiency. These direct responses have the potential to increase plant growth, vegetation biomass, and soil organic matter; transferring carbon from the atmosphere into terrestrial ecosystems (a carbon sink). A substantial global terrestrial carbon sink would slow the rate of [CO 2 ] increase and thus climate change. However, ecosystem CO 2 responses are complex or confounded by concurrent changes in multiple agents of global change and evidence for a [CO 2 ]‐driven terrestrial carbon sink can appear contradictory. Here we synthesize theory and broad, multidisciplinary evidence for the effects of increasing [CO 2 ] (iCO 2 ) on the global terrestrial carbon sink. Evidence suggests a substantial increase in global photosynthesis since pre‐industrial times. Established theory, supported by experiments, indicates that iCO 2 is likely responsible for about half of the increase. Global carbon budgeting, atmospheric data, and forest inventories indicate a historical carbon sink, and these apparent iCO 2 responses are high in comparison to experiments and predictions from theory. Plant mortality and soil carbon iCO 2 responses are highly uncertain. In conclusion, a range of evidence supports a positive terrestrial carbon sink in response to iCO 2 , albeit with uncertain magnitude and strong suggestion of a role for additional agents of global change.

New Phytologist↗

USGS2020

Geochemical and mineralogical study of the Red Mountain porphyry copper-molybdenum deposit and vicinity, Santa Cruz County, Arizona

The Red Mountain porphyry copper-molybdenum deposit (Cu-Mo deposit or PCD) is located in the northern part of the Patagonia Mountains, Santa Cruz County, Arizona. Extensive core drilling has delineated a large, deep-seated, structurally intact mineral system that extends from the present surface to depths of more than 1,765 meters. This system is hosted in a thick complex of predominantly felsic to andesitic volcanic rocks of the Cretaceous Period. This complex was intruded by scattered bodies of the Tertiary Period that are predominantly quartz monzonite porphyry; no major associated source intrusion has yet been found at depth. A total of 818 samples of core were analyzed for as many as 44 elements. The abundances and distributions at depth of at least 17 of these elements (silver [Ag], arsenic [As], gold [Au], boron [B], bismuth [Bi], copper [Cu], mercury [Hg], potassium [K], molybdenum [Mo], lead [Pb], sulfur [S], antimony [Sb], tin [Sn], tellurium [Te], thallium [Tl], tungsten [W], and zinc [Zn]) are related mostly to events that generated the Red Mountain system. Many of these same samples were also analyzed by X-ray diffraction for a suite of minerals. The multielement and mineralogical analyses of the core samples provide important information about the concentrations, associations, and distributions of select elements and minerals, including zoning patterns that may not be apparent from visual examination of core samples. The distributions of selected elements and minerals in these samples reveal an unusually complete mineral system that extends from a typical PCD with potassic alteration at depth to peripheral zones of phyllic and advanced argillic alteration as well as a copper-rich supergene enriched zone and the remnants of a leached cap. R-mode factor analysis was run with 34 elements for a set of samples from the deep part of the hypogene Cu-Mo deposit and another set from the part of the supergene zone with the highest copper enrichment. For the hypogene zone dataset, five factors are related to the PCD: (1) Ag, Cu, Mo, S, and Te; (2) As, B, Hg, and Sb; (3) Au and sodium (Na); (4) manganese (Mn), Pb, and Zn; and (5) K and Tl. For the supergene dataset, the deposit-related factors include (1) Cu, Mo, S, and Te; (2) Ag, As, Hg, Pb, Sb, and Tl; (3) Au and Na; and (4) K and rubidium (Rb). The changes in element associations between the two datasets indicate that some of these new associations are a result of formation of several suites of hypogene minerals in the deep part of the deposit and different hypogene mineral suites in the peripheral part of the deposit. Some changes may be because of the effects of supergene processes. Zones containing deposit-related elements and minerals common to many PCDs are present at Red Mountain. These zones include a crude, inverted cup-shaped shell containing anomalous copper accompanied by high concentrations of Ag, Au, K, Mo, total S, sulfate S, Sb, Te, and Tl, as well as local concentrations of As, B, Hg, Pb, and Zn. Hydrothermal minerals spatially associated with the deep hypogene Cu-Mo deposit include chalcopyrite, molybdenite, pyrite, plagioclase, orthoclase, biotite, magnetite, calcite, quartz, and anhydrite. Many of the hydrothermally deposited elements that are spatially related to the deposit are also concentrated in zones above the deep part of the deposit, including Ag, As, K, Pb, Sb, Te, Tl, and Zn. These elements are concentrated either (1) in generally wide, flat zones present in the upper part of the system or (2) in crudely arcuate peripheral zones found mainly in the middle part of the system and surrounding the deep part of the deposit. Near-surface, restricted hypogene anomalies are present for bismuth, mercury, tin, and tungsten. The upper part of the deposit has been subjected to supergene enrichment and weathering. Deposit-related elements that remain anomalous in this area include Ag, As, Au, B, Bi, cobalt (Co), Cu, Hg, Mo, Pb, S, Sb, Sn, Te, Tl, uranium (U), and W. These positive concentrations indicate that, with the exception of copper and possibly mercury and uranium, these elements had relatively low chemical mobilities in the supergene enrichment and later weathering environments at Red Mountain. Most may have been deposited during one or more hypogene events and then redistributed locally during later events. Zinc is the only deposit-related element that has clearly been depleted as a result of supergene and (or) weathering events. Minerals that are common in the unweathered upper part of the system include chalcocite, pyrite, quartz, sericite, alunite, and pyrophyllite, as well as less common covellite, enargite, tennantite, tourmaline, barite, anglesite, and other sulfide or sulfate minerals. Subsequent to formation of the Red Mountain Cu-Mo deposit and supergene enrichment, chemical weathering produced an area of pervasive hematite and other iron oxides in the near-surface part of the deposit to form a leached cap. These iron-rich minerals formed primarily as a result of the oxidation of pyrite. This event was accompanied by losses of cobalt, mercury, magnesium, and zinc, as well as destruction of sericite, plagioclase, pyrite, clay minerals, and pyrophyllite. A total of 122 rock samples, 119 soil samples, and samples of three plant species (57 mesquite, 108 oak, and 68 juniper) were collected over and around Red Mountain. For the rock and soil samples, the distributions of anomalous Ag, As, Bi, Cu, Fe, Mo, Pb, Sb, Te, and Tl best delineated the exposed part of the deposit. The highest concentrations of many of these elements are centered on one or both of two main areas with exposures of quartz monzonite porphyry. The high concentrations of arsenic in the deposit area (as much as 390 parts per million (ppm) in rock and 1,500 ppm in soil) and of lead (as much as 2,370 ppm in rock and 1,490 ppm in soil) are particularly noteworthy. The concentrations of various elements in the plant ash vary widely among the three species and are species dependent. Many of the deposit-related elements are either nonessential for plant growth or are considered toxic at certain concentration ranges. In spite of this, the distributions of potentially toxic Ag, As, Bi, Cd, Cu, Mo, Pb, Sb, selenium (Se), and Zn produce deposit-related anomalies for one or more of the three species. Vegetation sampling offered no advantage over rock or soil sampling as an exploration tool. From an environmental standpoint, however, the plant analyses provide baseline data for both essential and nonessential elements that might be useful, for example, for selecting native plant species for revegetating mine waste areas. The exposed part of the Red Mountain deposit has not been greatly disturbed as a result of mining and other activities. However, some of the rock, soil, and plant samples that were collected near the Harshaw Creek and Alum Gulch drainages, which are peripheral to Red Mountain, are also anomalous for various deposit-related elements. These anomalies are probably the result of dispersion of stream sediments contaminated with material from past mining.

Arizona↗

USGS2021

Soils and paleosols

Soils are naturally occurring bodies that form in the interface between the geosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere , and atmosphere. They are the medium for much of the Earth's plant and animal growth. Soil morphology and how it evolves are functions of the soil-forming factors of climate, organisms, relief, parent material, and time. The expression of soil morphology takes the form of layers, called horizons, that differ in their color, particle size distribution, structure, chemistry, and organic matter content from the parent material. A fundamental soil mapping unit in the USA is the soil order and 12 soil orders have been defined on the basis of soil morphology, physical and chemical properties, and climate. Soil geography in the USA is explained by an examination of how these 12 soil orders are found in particular climates, under specific vegetation communities, how they develop from compositionally distinct parent materials, or how they are a result of the age of soil parent material. Paleosols are ancient soils, those that formed in the past. Three types of paleosols are recognized, buried soils (those covered by a younger sediment or rock), exhumed paleosols (formerly buried soils that are now exposed at the surface due to erosion of overlying materials), and relict paleosols (soils that occur at the land surface, but which formed in an environment, such as a climate or biome, very different from that at the present time). Paleosols can help define geologic contacts and can aid in elucidating past climates or vegetation regimes. Although there are rich geologic records of paleosols in the Quaternary, there is an increasing recognition of the importance of all these features in the longer, pre-Quaternary geologic record.

Book chapter↗

USGS2002

Root proliferation in decaying roots and old root channels: A nutrient conservation mechanism in oligotrophic mangrove forests?

1. In oligotrophic habitats, proliferation of roots in nutrient-rich microsites may contribute to overall nutrient conservation by plants. Peat-based soils on mangrove islands in Belize are characterized by the presence of decaying roots and numerous old root channels (0.1-3.5 cm diameter) that become filled with living and highly branched roots of Rhizophora mangle and Avicennia germinans. The objectives of this study were to quantify the proliferation of roots in these microsites and to determine what causes this response. 2. Channels formed by the refractory remains of mangrove roots accounted for only 1-2% of total soil volume, but the proportion of roots found within channels varied from 9 to 24% of total live mass. Successive generations of roots growing inside increasingly smaller root channels were also found. 3. When artificial channels constructed of PVC pipe were buried in the peat for 2 years, those filled with nutrient-rich organic matter had six times more roots than empty or sand-filled channels, indicating a response to greater nutrient availability rather than to greater space or less impedance to root growth. 4. Root proliferation inside decaying roots may improve recovery of nutrients released from decomposing tissues before they can be leached or immobilized in this intertidal environment. Greatest root proliferation in channels occurred in interior forest zones characterized by greater soil waterlogging, which suggests that this may be a strategy for nutrient capture that minimizes oxygen losses from the whole root system. 5. Improved efficiency of nutrient acquisition at the individual plant level has implications for nutrient economy at the ecosystem level and may explain, in part, how mangroves persist and grow in nutrient-poor environments.

Journal of Ecology↗

USGS1992

The Mauna Loa environmental matrix: foliar and soil nutrients

The accumulation of total carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in soils, available soil nutrients, and foliar nutrients in the native dominant Metrosideros polymorpha were determined across a wide elevational range on 9 lava flows on Mauna Loa, Hawai'i. The flows included a young (<140 y) and an old (>2800 y) a??a?? (rough surface texture) and pa??hoehoe (smooth) flow on the wet east and dry northwest side of the mountain. Soil element pools and nutrient availability increased with flow age independent of climate. The dry sites accumulated organic matter and nutrients more slowly than comparable wet sites, but relative nutrient availability to plants (as indicated by soil assays and foliar nutrients) was greater in the dry sites. Accumulation of soil organic matter and nutrients occurred most rapidly in lowerelevation sites on the young flows, but the largest accumulations occurred at higher elevations on old flows. The range of sites sampled represents a complete and largely independent matrix of major factors governing ecosystem structure and function. ?? 1992 Springer-Verlag.

Oecologia↗

USGS2019

Carbon storage potential in a recently created brackish marsh in eastern North Carolina, USA

Carbon (C) sequestration through accumulated plant biomass and storage in soils can potentially make wetland ecosystems net C sinks. Here, we collected GHG flux, plant biomass, and litter decomposition data from three distinct vegetation zones ( Spartina alterniflora , Juncus roemerianus and Spartina patens ) on a 7-year-old created brackish marsh in North Carolina, USA, and integrate these data into an overall C mass balance budget. The marsh fixed an average of 1.85 g C m −2 day −1 through plant photosynthesis. About 41–46% of the fixed C remained in plants, while 18.4% of the C was decomposed and released back to the atmosphere as CO 2 and CH 4 , and 8.6–13.2% of the decomposed C was stored as soil C. In all, this created marsh sequestered 28.7–44.7 Mg CO 2 year −1 across the 14 ha marsh. Because the brackish marsh emitted only small amounts of CH 4 and N 2 O, the CO 2 equivalent emission of the marsh was −0.87 to −0.56 g CO 2-eq m −2 day −1 , indicating the marsh has a net effect in reducing GHGs to the atmosphere and contributes to cooling. However, resultant CO 2 credit (through the increment of soil C) would be worth only $30.76–$47.90 USD per hectare annually, or $431–$671 per year for the project, which, coupled with other enhanced ecosystem services, could provide landowners with some additional economic incentive for future creation projects. Nevertheless, C mass balance determinations and radiative cooling metrics showed promise in demonstrating the potential of a young created brackish marsh to act as a net carbon sink.

North Carolina↗

USGS2019

Genetic variation in tree leaf chemistry predicts the abundance and activity of autotrophic soil microorganisms

Genetic variation in the chemistry of plant leaves can have ecosystem-level consequences. Here we address the hypothesis that genetic variation in foliar condensed tannins along a Populus hybridization gradient influence soil ammonia oxidizers, autotrophic microorganisms that perform the first step of nitrification and are not dependent on carbon derived from plant photosynthesis. Evidence that genetically based plant traits influence the abundance and activity of autotrophic soil microbes would greatly expand the concept of extended plant phenotypes. We found that increasing foliar condensed tannin concentration reduced rates of soil nitrification potential by ~ 75%, reduced the abundance of ammonia oxidizing archaea by ~ 66%, but had no effect on ammonia oxidizing bacteria. Other indices that often drive nitrification rates, including soil total nitrogen, foliar nitrogen, and soil pH, were not significant predictors of either the activity or abundance of ammonia oxidizers, suggesting genetic variation in foliar condensed tannins may be the dominant regulating factor. These results demonstrate the condensed tannin phenotypes of two different tree species and their naturally occurring hybrids have extended effects on a key ecosystem process and provide evidence for indirect genetic linkages among autotrophs across at least two domains of life.

Ecosphere↗