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USGS2019

Predicting surf zone injuries along the Delaware coast using a Bayesian network

Personnel at Beebe Healthcare in Lewes, Delaware, collected surf zone injury (SZI) data for eight summer seasons from 2010 through 2017. Data include, but are not limited to, time of injury, gender, age, and activity. More than 2000 SZI events, including 196 spinal injuries and 6 fatalities, occurred at the five most populated beaches along the 25 miles of Atlantic-fronting coast. SZI are predominantly wave related incidents associated with wading (50.1%), body surfing (18.4%), and body boarding (13.3%). The episodic nature of SZI indicate the importance of linking the environmental conditions and human behavior in the surf zone to predict days with high injury rates. Higher order statistics are necessary to effectively consider all associated factors related to SZI. Two Bayesian networks (BN) were constructed to model SZI and predict changes in injury rate (proportion of injuries to bathers) and injury likelihood (probability of at least one injury occurrence) on an hourly basis. The models incorporate environmental data collected by weather stations, wave gauges, and researcher personnel on the beach. The models include prior (e.g., historic) information to infer relationships between provided parameters. Sensitivity analysis determined the most influential parameters related to injury rates were significant wave height, foreshore slope, and water temperature. Exposure parameters (e.g., air temperature) influenced the number of people in the water, resulting in strong correlation between injury likelihood and the related meteorological conditions (variance reduction > 0.4%). Log likelihood ratio (LLR) scores indicate the network predicts SZI likelihood during any specified hour with more skill than prior predictions with the best performing model improving prediction 69.1% of the time (LLR = 69.1%). An alternative BN predicting injury rate performed worse with the prior probability model out predicting the injury rate network (positive LLR = 36.7%). Issues persist with predicting SZI that have an LLR ≪ -1 (< 5% of 2017 injuries) and occur in conditions different than when most other SZI occur. Better understanding of SZI will improve awareness techniques to both educate beachgoers and assist beach patrol decision making during high risk conditions.

Delaware↗

USGS1998

Copper hazards to fish, wildlife and invertebrates: a synoptic review

Selective review and synthesis of the technical literature on copper and copper salts in the environment and their effects primarily on fishes, birds, mammals, terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates, and other natural resources. The subtopics include copper sources and uses; chemical and biochemical properties; concentrations of copper in field collections of abiotic materials and living organisms; effects of copper deficiency; lethal and sublethal effects on terrestrial plants and invertebrates, aquatic organisms, birds and mammals, including effects on survival, growth, reproduction, behavior, metabolism, carcinogenicity, matagenicity, and teratogenicity; proposed criteria for the protection of human health and sensitive natural resources; and recommendations for additional research.

Contaminant Hazard Reviews↗

USGS2017

Implications of rapid environmental change for polar bear behavior and sociality

Historically, the Arctic sea ice has functioned as a structural barrier that has limited the nature and extent of interactions between humans and polar bears ( Ursus maritimus ). However, declining sea ice extent, brought about by global climate change, is increasing the potential for human-polar bear interactions. Loss of sea ice habitat is driving changes to both human and polar bear behavior—it is facilitating increases in human activities (e.g., offshore oil and gas exploration and extraction, trans-Arctic shipping, recreation), while also causing the displacement of bears from preferred foraging habitat (i.e., sea ice over biologically productive shallow) to land in some portions of their range. The end result of these changes is that polar bears are spending greater amounts of time in close proximity to people. Coexistence between humans and polar bears will require imposing mechanisms to manage further development, as well as mitigation strategies that reduce the burden to local communities.

Book chapter↗

USGS2018

A values-based private landowner typology to improve grassland conservation initiatives

Many conservation initiatives are based on natural science alone, despite an extensive body of literature demonstrating that the incorporation of social science generates more successful and lasting outcomes. The Land Use Value (LUV) scale is an example of a social science tool that grassland conservation practitioners can use to improve their understanding of the land use decisions of private agricultural landowners. Drawing on data from a mail survey, we demonstrated the utility of the LUV scale to segment agricultural producers by four LUV types (Humans First, Nature First, Interconnected, and Disconnected) with significantly different motivations and land use behaviors. This information can be used to evaluate and align grassland conservation practices, policies, and messaging with the LUV types of private agricultural landowners. Tools like the LUV scale are critical to building the social science capacity of conservation professionals and organizations, in order to improve the efficacy of conservation initiatives.

Society and Natural Resources↗

USGS2010

Behavioral response of manatees to variations in environmental sound levels

Florida manatees ( Trichechus manatus latirostris ) inhabit coastal regions because they feed on the aquatic vegetation that grows in shallow waters, which are the same areas where human activities are greatest. Noise produced from anthropogenic and natural sources has the potential to affect these animals by eliciting responses ranging from mild behavioral changes to extreme aversion. Sound levels were calculated from recordings made throughout behavioral observation periods. An information theoretic approach was used to investigate the relationship between behavior patterns and sound level. Results indicated that elevated sound levels affect manatee activity and are a function of behavioral state. The proportion of time manatees spent feeding and milling changed in response to sound level. When ambient sound levels were highest, more time was spent in the directed, goal-oriented behavior of feeding, whereas less time was spent engaged in undirected behavior such as milling. This work illustrates how shifts in activity of individual manatees may be useful parameters for identifying impacts of noise on manatees and might inform population level effects.

Marine Mammal Science↗

USGS2005

Identifying spawning behavior in Pacific halibut ( Hippoglossus stenolepis ) using electronic tags

Identifying spawning behavior in Pacific halibut, Hippoglossus stenolepis, is particularly challenging because they occupy a deep, remote environment during the spawning season. To identify spawning events, a method is needed in which direct observation by humans is not employed. Spawning behavior of seven other flatfish, species has been directly observed in their natural environment by investigators using SCUBA. All of these flatfish species display almost identical spawning behavior that follows a routine. Therefore, it is reasonable to believe that this spawning behavior occurs in other flatfish species, including Pacific halibut. As part of a larger study, we recaptured two Pacific halibut on which Pop-up Archival Transmitting (PAT) tags had been attached during the winter spawning season. Because the tags were physically retrieved, we were able to collect minute-by-minute depth records for 135 and 155 days. We used these depth data to tentatively identify spawning events. On seven separate occasions between 20 January 2001 and 9 February 2001, one fish displayed a conspicuous routine only seen during the spawning season of Pacific halibut and the routine parallels the actions of other spawning flatfish directly observed by humans using SCUBA. Therefore, we propose this routine represents spawning behavior in Pacific halibut. The second tagged fish did not display the conspicuous routine, thus challenging the assumption that Pacific halibut are annual spawners. PAT tags may prove to be a useful tool for identifying spawning events of Pacific halibut, and that knowledge may be used for improved management in the future.

Environmental Biology of Fishes↗

USGS2025

Understanding and managing introduction pathways into protected areas in a changing climate

The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework 2030 calls for the conservation of 30% of the world’s ecosystems, focusing on protecting areas vital to biodiversity, identifying and managing invasive species introduction pathways, and minimizing the impacts of climate change on biodiversity. While protected areas (PAs) have historically limited the introduction, establishment, and spread of non-native species, climate change is likely to increase their susceptibility to invasion. Yet we know little about how pathways may shift in the future, making it difficult for managers to plan appropriately. This paper explores how climate change may affect primary and secondary pathways of introduction and presents an adaptive management approach to avoid, minimize, and mitigate impacts. Climate change has influenced introduction pathways by modifying human behaviors (e.g., forced migration and shifting travel and vacation destinations), and by altering transportation routes, natural dispersal mechanisms, and the environmental conditions along these pathways and in donor and receiver regions. These changes increase the risk of non-native species introductions and their subsequent spread within PAs. Implementing climate-smart adaptive biosecurity, an iterative process that includes the incorporation of new technologies and perspectives, will become increasingly important for invasive species prevention and management of PAs as it provides flexibility in management response and maximizes positive outcomes when resources are limited.

Biological Invasions↗

USGS2010

The anatomy of a (potential) disaster: Volcanoes, behavior, and population viability of the short-tailed albatross (Phoebastria albatrus)

Catastrophic events, either from natural (e.g., hurricane) or human-induced (e.g., forest clear-cut) processes, are a well-known threat to wild populations. However, our lack of knowledge about population-level effects of catastrophic events has inhibited the careful examination of how catastrophes affect population growth and persistence. For the critically endangered short-tailed albatross (Phoebastria albatrus), episodic volcanic eruptions are considered a serious catastrophic threat since approximately 80% of the global population of ???2500 birds (in 2006) currently breeds on an active volcano, Torishima Island. We evaluated how short-tailed albatross population persistence is affected by the catastrophic threat of a volcanic eruption relative to chronic threats. We also provide an example for overcoming the seemingly overwhelming problems created by modelling the population dynamics of a species with limited demographic data by incorporating uncertainty in our analysis. As such, we constructed a stochastic age-based matrix model that incorporated both catastrophic mortality due to volcanic eruptions and chronic mortality from several potential sources (e.g., contaminant exposure, fisheries bycatch) to determine the relative effects of these two types of threats on short-tailed albatross population growth and persistence. Modest increases (1%) in chronic (annual) mortality had a 2.5-fold greater effect on predicted short-tailed albatross stochastic population growth rate (lambda) than did the occurrence of periodic volcanic eruptions that follow historic eruption frequencies (annual probability of eruption 2.2%). Our work demonstrates that periodic catastrophic volcanic eruptions, despite their dramatic nature, are less likely to affect the population viability and recovery of short-tailed albatross than low-level chronic mortality. ?? 2009 Elsevier Ltd.

Biological Conservation↗

USGS2018

Extending the habitat concept to the airspace

Habitat is one of the most familiar and fundamental concepts in the fields of ecology, animal behavior, and wildlife conservation and management. Humans interact with habitats through their senses and experiences and education to such a degree that their perceptions of habitat have become second nature. For this reason, it may be difficult at first to accept the airspace as habitat, an area that is invisible, untouchable, highly dynamic, and its occupants difficult to see. Nonetheless, the habitat concept, by definition and in practice, applies readily to the airspace. Some ecological and behavioral processes including habitat selection, foraging, and reproduction are operational in the airspace, while others, particularly those mediated by resource limitation such as territoriality, are likely uncommon if present at all. The behaviors of flying animals increasingly expose them to anthropogenic hazards as development of the airspace accelerates. This exacerbates the need to identify approaches for managing these human–wildlife conflicts in aerial habitats, especially where human safety or at-risk populations are concerned. The habitat concept has proven useful in shaping environmental law and policy to help mitigate these conflicts. It remains to be seen whether current law can bend to include a more expansive concept of habitat that includes the airspace.

Book chapter↗

USGS2024

Self-determination theory as an alternate conceptual foundation for motivation in natural resource research

Motivation is a topic that receives substantial interest across the social sciences. However, in the human dimensions of natural resource literature, scholars have primarily treated motivation as a construct narrowly defined by the individual’s desired goal state. In contrast, self-determination theory (SDT) suggests that multiple forms of motivation can influence levels of self-determination, integration of identities, and subsequent behavioral intentions, and has been utilized in multiple realms to understand human behavior. SDT forms a consistent and well-understood mechanism for human psychological development and optimal function and allows for the formulation of out-of-sample prediction, a cornerstone of science. In this manuscript, we review the basic theories that make up SDT and provide insight for its application to human dimensions of natural resource research.

Human Dimensions of Wildlife: An International Jou↗

USGS2008

Comparison of effects of humans versus wildlife-detector dogs

The use of dogs ( Canis lupus familiaris ) trained to locate wildlife under natural conditions may increase the risk of attracting potential predators or alter behavior of target species. These potentially negative effects become even more problematic when dealing with threatened or endangered species, such as the Mojave Desert tortoise ( Gopherus agassizii ). We addressed three concerns regarding use of dogs trained to locate desert tortoises in the wild. First, we looked at the potential for dogs to attract native and non-native predators to sites at a greater rate than with human visitation alone by comparing presence of predator sign before and after visitation by dogs and by humans. We found no significant difference in predator sign based upon type of surveyor. Second, we looked at the difference in risk of predation to desert tortoises that were located in the wild by humans versus humans with wildlife-detector dogs. Over a 5-week period, during which tortoises were extensively monitored and a subsequent period of 1 year during which tortoises were monitored monthly, there was no predation on, nor sign of predator-inflicted trauma to tortoises initially encountered either by humans or wildlife-detector dogs. Third, we looked at movement patterns of tortoises after encounter by either humans or wildlife-detector dogs. Movement of desert tortoises was not significantly different after being found by a human versus being found by a wildlife-detector dog. Based upon these initial results we conclude that use of trained wildlife-detector dogs to survey for desert tortoises in the wild does not appear to increase attraction of predators, increase risk of predation, or alter movement patterns of desert tortoises more than surveys conducted by humans alone.

Southwestern Naturalist↗

USGS2005

Using the risk-disturbance hypothesis to assess the relative effects of human disturbance and predation risk on foraging American Oystercatchers

The risk-disturbance hypothesis asserts that animals perceive human disturbance similar to nonlethal predation stimuli, and exhibit comparable responses in the form of optimization tradeoffs. However, few studies have examined how natural predation risk factors interact with human-disturbance stimuli to elicit such responses. We observed American Oystercatcher ( Haematopus palliatus ) vigilance behavior from September–December 2002 on the Cape Romain National Wildlife Refuge, South Carolina. A set of models was constructed based on 340 focal-animal samples and models revealed relationships between vigilance behavior, predator density, and boat activity. Oystercatchers increased vigilance in response to aerial predators, particularly late in the season when predator species composition was dominated by Northern Harriers ( Circus cyaneus ). At a broader temporal scale, oystercatchers exhibited the highest vigilance rates during simultaneous peaks in boating disturbance and Osprey ( Pandion haliaetus ) activity. Due to this temporal overlap of stimuli, it is difficult to interpret what may have been driving the observed increased in vigilance. Foraging rates appeared to be primarily driven by habitat and tidal stage indicating that time lost to vigilance did not effectively reduce intake. Taken together, these findings provide some support for the risk-disturbance hypothesis, underscore the sensitivity of disturbance studies to temporal scale, and draw attention to the potential confounding effects of natural predation risk.

South Carolina↗

USGS2022

Temperature-based modeling of incubation period to protect loggerhead hatchlings on an urban beach in Northwest Florida

Sea turtle hatchlings face many natural and anthropogenic threats during their short journey to the water after emerging from nests. Reducing hatchling mortality is critical to population recovery of imperiled sea turtle species; however, protecting hatchlings is particularly challenging on beaches degraded by human development and disturbances, including artificial lighting. Managers need practical methods to reduce hatchling mortality without harming their natural behavior or development. To address this need, we describe an approach to reduce mortality of loggerhead hatchlings that relies on prediction of clutch incubation length and knowledge of hatchling emergence patterns. We developed models to predict incubation length utilizing sand temperature and nest depth data from 133 loggerhead nests laid on an urban beach in Northwest Florida from 2013 to 2020. Incubation length was predicted to within 2.2 days using mean sand temperatures measured just outside of the clutch. Predicted accuracy improved to 1.9 days using a 2-parameter model incorporating sand temperature and measured depth to the topmost eggs. Hatchlings emerged almost exclusively at night in a single large group with no evidence of asynchronous emergences. Emergence times were skewed toward the early evening, in contrast to loggerhead nests on the Florida Atlantic coast which tend to hatch near midnight. Using these prediction tools, monitoring efforts could be focused on days and times of expected emergence to enable protection of hatchlings emerging naturally from nests left in situ. The method used here, while not a substitute for recovery of degraded nesting habitat, provides a way to protect hatchlings that avoids disturbing the eggs with instruments or restraining the hatchlings with cages or screens.

Florida↗

USGS2009

The Ecology of Parasite-Host Interactions at Montezuma Well National Monument, Arizona - Appreciating the Importance of Parasites

Although parasites play important ecological roles through the direct interactions they have with their hosts, historically that fact has been underappreciated. Today, scientists have a growing appreciation of the scope of such impacts. Parasites have been reported to dominate food webs, alter predator-prey relationships, act as ecosystem engineers, and alter community structure. In spite of this growing awareness in the scientific community, parasites are still often neglected in the consideration of the management and conservation of resources and ecosystems. Given that at least half of the organisms on earth are probably parasitic, it should be evident that the ecological functions of parasites warrant greater attention. In this report, we explore different aspects of parasite-host relationships found at a desert spring pond within Montezuma Well National Monument, Arizona. In three separate but related chapters, we explore interactions between a novel amphipod host and two parasites. First, we identify how host behavior responds to this association and how this association affects interactions with both invertebrate non-host predators and a vertebrate host predator. Second, we look at the human dimension, investigating how human recreation can indirectly affect patterns of disease by altering patterns of vertebrate host space use. Finally - because parasites and diseases are of increasing importance in the management of wildlife species, especially those that are imperiled or of management concern - the third chapter argues that research would benefit from increased attention to the statistical analysis of wildlife disease studies. This report also explores issues of statistical parasitology, providing information that may better inform those designing research projects and analyzing data from studies of wildlife disease. In investigating the nature of parasite-host interactions, the role that relationships play in ecological communities, and how human activities alter these associations, scientists usually make inferences by methods of statistical hypotheses testing. This type of hypothesis testing places additional importance on the analysis and interpretation of parasite-host interactions. We address these ideas in this report, focusing on the following questions: (1) How do two parasites with complex life cycles alter the behavior of a novel amphipod host, and how do host and non-host predators respond to infected amphipod prey? (2) Does human recreation affect spatial patterns of infection in an otherwise natural ecosystem? (3) How is hypothesis-testing applied in studies of wildlife disease? (4) What conclusions can we make about the relative usefulness of these methodologies? and (5) How can the analysis and interpretation of wildlife disease studies be improved? Each chapter of this report contains its own literature-cited section, with tables included in appendixes at the end of the full report.

Open-File Report↗

USGS2019

Review of Sky dance of the woodcock: The habits and habitats of a strange little bird by Greg Hoch

American Woodcock ( Scolopax minor ) have enthralled conservationists (including Aldo Leopold), bird watchers, wildlife enthusiasts, hunters, and others interested in the natural world for centuries. No doubt, woodcock also have enthralled humans in North America for millennia prior to written descriptions of the woodcock’s courtship displays, habitat preferences, and curious behavior and anatomy. As perhaps the most extensively studied species of shorebird in the world, there is a rich and extensive literature, both scientific and popular, focused on woodcock ecology, behavior, and hunting. To that extensive body of literature, Sky Dance of the Woodcock provides an updated summary of their natural history, habitat relations, and conservation. Sky Dance of the Woodcock takes its title from the courtship display of male woodcock, which consists of an elaborate aerial flight incorporating sound produced both vocally and mechanically via highly modified flight feathers. The aerial displays are accompanied by similarly unusual behavior on the ground, including a distinctive ‘peent’ call. This courtship display happens across much of eastern North America each spring, and Hoch uses this wonder to capture the imagination of the readers of his text. Hoch begins the book with an overview of some of the mystery and fascination surrounding woodcock and builds from that opening to describe woodcock anatomy, natural history, and behavior, before describing their courtship display in greater detail. From there, Hoch describes woodcock-habitat relations, provides a historical overview of woodcock hunting, identifies current threats to woodcock populations, summarizes past and recent woodcock research, and finally, presents an updated overview of woodcock conservation and habitat management. Throughout, there is sometimes surprising information about things as simple as what woodcock eat, to more complex assessment of how woodcock use landscapes and migrate to and from spring and summer breeding areas. This book will undoubtedly appeal to woodcock enthusiasts of a variety to stripes. Woodcock hunters and bird watchers alike will learn something about woodcock-habitat relations, behavior, and conservation. Professional biologists and researchers will benefit from Hoch’s synthesis of a wide range of information about woodcock, and landowners and managers can use some of the concepts in this book to inform their decisions about how to manage lands under their control. Along the way, everyone who reads Sky Dance of the Woodcock is likely to come away with an enhanced appreciation of this captivating bird.

Prairie Naturalist↗

USGS2014

Hydrogeology of the Old Faithful area, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, and its relevance to natural resources and infrastructure

A panel of leading experts (The Old Faithful Science Review Panel) was convened by Yellowstone National Park (YNP) to review and summarize the geological and hydrological understanding that can inform National Park Service management of the Upper Geyser Basin area. We give an overview of present geological and hydrological knowledge of the Old Faithful hydrothermal (hot water) system and related thermal areas in the Upper Geyser Basin. We prioritize avenues for improving our understanding of key knowledge gaps that limit informed decision-making regarding human use in this fragile natural landscape. Lastly, we offer guidelines to minimize impacts to the hydrothermal system that could be used to aid decisions by park management. Old Faithful sits within the Upper Geyser Basin, an area of abundant hydrothermal activity where boiling waters extend from the surface to significant depth within glacial sediments and underlying volcanic rocks. The geyser systems are directly fed by waters recharged decades to millennia ago, which are surrounded by colder, younger waters. Activity of the geysers is controlled by complex subsurface plumbing with fractures and conduits separated by regions of low permeability. Observations over the past century indicate that the thermal areas and their features are both fragile and highly dynamic. Although Old Faithful has erupted regularly for the past 150 years, it exhibits changes in eruptive behavior over time, and the average interval between eruptions has increased by about 50 percent over the past 50 years. It is clear that human activity has modified the hydrothermal system in the past; conversely, natural features pose ongoing hazards to humans and human infrastructure. Current (2014) long-term programs to measure heat discharge by chloride-flux monitoring, and more recently by thermal-infrared imaging, are crucial for assessing the status of the hydrothermal system. Complementary studies could include airborne resistivity, environmental tracers, numerical modeling, and greater emphasis on measuring the discharge of water during geyser eruptions. Such data are needed to better understand the subsurface plumbing systems that feed the geysers. Further understanding can be gained through installation of shallow groundwater observation wells, surface geophysical studies, and direct measurement of temperature gradients near the surface. It also is critical to archive existing data from all studies in a manner that will be readily accessible to scientists and decision makers. Monitoring and data collection can be achieved through the YNP geology program, by direct funding to other groups, or by encouraging and facilitating externally funded research. There are many documented examples at YNP and elsewhere where human infrastructure and natural thermal features have negatively affected each other. Unless action is taken, human conflicts with the Old Faithful hydrothermal system are likely to increase over the coming years. This is partly because of the increase in park visitation over the past decades, but also because the interval between eruptions of Old Faithful has increased, lengthening the time spent (and services needed) for each visitor at Old Faithful. To avoid an increase in visitor impacts, the National Park Service should consider 2 alternate strategies to accommodate people, vehicles, and services in the Upper Geyser Basin, such as shuttle services from staging (parking and dining) areas with little or no recent hydrothermal activity. We further suggest that YNP consider a zone system to guide maintenance and development of infrastructure in the immediate Old Faithful area. A “red” zone includes hydrothermally active land where new development is discouraged and existing infrastructure is modified with great care. An outer “green” zone represents areas where cooler temperatures and less hydrothermal flow are thought to exist, and where development and maintenance could proceed as occurs elsewhere in the park. An intermediate “yellow” zone would require preliminary assessment of subsurface temperatures and gas concentrations to assess suitability for infrastructure development. The panel recommends that YNP management follow the lead of the National Park System Advisory Board Science Committee (2012) by applying the “precautionary principle” when making decisions regarding the interaction of hydrothermal phenomena and park infrastructure in the Old Faithful area and other thermal areas within YNP.

Wyoming↗

USGS2016

Desert Scrublands

Desert scrublands comprise the lower to mid-elevation portions of four different ecosystems including the Chihuahuan, Great Basin, Mojave and Sonoran Deserts. Together the area inside their outer boundaries includes over 8% of the surface area of the United States. Despite significant differences in the flora and fauna of these bioregions they all share the common trait of being arid shrub-steppe ecosystems, receiving, on average, less than 254 mm of rain per year. The austere nature of these landscapes belies their significant biodiversity, the amazing behavioral and physiological adaptations of the biota, and the fragility of the ecosystems to human disturbances. For example, the Mojave Desert alone has at least 250 species of ephemeral plants, mostly winter annuals, and up to 90% are endemic.

Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico,↗

USGS2016

Sea level driven marsh expansion in a coupled model of marsh erosion and migration

Coastal wetlands are among the most valuable ecosystems on Earth, where ecosystem services such as flood protection depend nonlinearly on wetland size and are threatened by sea level rise and coastal development. Here we propose a simple model of marsh migration into adjacent uplands and couple it with existing models of seaward edge erosion and vertical soil accretion to explore how ecosystem connectivity influences marsh size and response to sea level rise. We find that marsh loss is nearly inevitable where topographic and anthropogenic barriers limit migration. Where unconstrained by barriers, however, rates of marsh migration are much more sensitive to accelerated sea level rise than rates of edge erosion. This behavior suggests a counterintuitive, natural tendency for marsh expansion with sea level rise and emphasizes the disparity between coastal response to climate change with and without human intervention.

Geophysical Research Letters↗