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USGS1981

An examination of techniques for reformatting digital cartographic data. Part 2: The vector-to raster process.

Cartographica: The International Journal for Geogr↗

USGS1984

Computer-assisted cartography: an overview.

An assessment of the current status of computer-assisted cartography, in part, is biased by one's view of the cartographic process as a whole. From a traditional viewpoint we are concerned about automating the mapping process; from a progressive viewpoint we are concerned about using the tools of computer science to convey spatial information. On the surface these viewpoints appear to be in opposition. However, it is postulated that in the final analysis, they face the same goal. This overview uses the perspectives from two viewpoints to depict the current state of computer-assisted cartography and speculate on future goals, trends, and challenges.-Authors

South African Journal of Photogrammetry, Remote Se↗

USGS1973

Photomechanical experiments in automated cartography

The U.S. Geological Survey recently undertook the investigation of two seemingly unrelated cartographic tasks: (1) the preparation of map copy for digitizing and (2) the production of experimental slope maps. Both tasks, however, require techniques and equipment for changing or manipulating the line weights of existing map symbols and producing suitable reproduction copy. After a study of existing equipment, a prototype revolving illuminator was designed and fabricated for experiments in line-weight manipulation. Sufficient exposures have been made with the device to indicate that positive control of line-weight increases and decreases up to 0.2 inch is attainable. The device has been used for photomechanical experiments in slope mapping, hill shading, and preparation of map copy for digitizing.

Journal of Research of the U.S. Geological Survey↗

USGS1974

The cartographic and scientific application of ERTS-1 imagery in polar regions

The first Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS-1), launched by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration in. July 1972, is providing valuable data for investigations of the most inaccessible and hostile regions of the Earth the Arctic and Antarctic. ERTS images and map products derived from them offer a whole new dimension in source material for multidiscipline investigations in the earth sciences. For the first time scientists can view synoptic, repetitive scenes of the polar regions in four spectral bands. Ongoing experiments funded by NASA and conducted in the U.S. Geological Survey have demonstrated the feasibility of revising coastlines on maps of Antarctica, detected gross changes in the northern limits of the three largest ice shelves in the world, and led to the discovery of uncharted mountain ranges.

Journal of Research of the U.S. Geological Survey↗

USGS2003

Movement and habitat use by radio-tagged paddlefish in the upper Mississippi River and tributaries

We used radio telemetry to evaluate the movement and habitat use of paddlefish Polyodon spathula in the upper Mississippi River and two tributary rivers. Radio transmitters were surgically implanted into 71 paddlefish in Navigation Pools 5A and 8 of the upper Mississippi River, the Chippewa River, and the Wisconsin River during fall 1994 through fall 1996. Radiotagged paddlefish were located through summer 1997. The range of paddlefish movement was typically low during all seasons except spring, but some paddlefish moved throughout the 420-km extent of the study area. Paddlefish tagged in the Chippewa River were closely linked with the upper Mississippi River, as substantial portions of the population inhabited the adjacent Navigation Pool 4 each spring; paddlefish in the Wisconsin River, however, rarely ventured out of that tributary. The use of aquatic area types by paddlefish varied among the study reaches. A cartographic model of paddlefish habitat suitability was developed for Navigation Pool 8 based on geographic information systems (GIS) coverages of bathymetry and current velocity. The value of paddlefish habitat in the cartographic model increased with depth and decreased with current velocity. For example, areas modeled as excellent corresponded to regions classified as having both deep water (greater than or equal to6.0 m) and negligible (<5 cm/s) current velocities. Our study suggests that aquatic area types are an inadequate basis for making sound management decisions regarding the critical habitats of paddlefish in complex riverine systems because such strata rely on gross geomorpological features rather than on the physicochemical variables that fish use to choose habitats. The development of systemic GIS coverages of such variables could improve the understanding of fish habitat selection and management in the upper Mississippi River.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗

USGS1981

An examination of techniques for reformatting digital cartographic data/part 1: The raster-to- vector process.

Current graphic devices suitable for high-speed computer input and output of cartographic data are tending more and more to be raster-oriented, such as the rotating drum scanner and the color raster display. However, the majority of commonly used manipulative techniques in computer-assisted cartography and automated spatial data handling continue to require that the data be in vector format. This situation has recently precipitated the requirement for very fast techniques for converting digital cartographic data from raster to vector format for processing, and then back into raster format for plotting. The current article is part one of a two-part paper concerned with examining the state-of-the-art in these conversion techniques. In part one, algorithms to perform all phases of the raster-to-vector process are systematically outlined, and then compared in general terms. Examples of existing implementations of the raster-to-vector process are also described and evaluated. Part two will outline and compare algorithms to perform the reverse process, vector-to-raster conversion. Part two will also discuss raster-to-vector and vector-to-raster conversion as an integrated process.

Cartographica: The International Journal for Geogr↗

USGS2011

Geochemical and isotopic study of soils and waters from an Italian contaminated site: Agro Aversano (Campania)

Lead isotope applications have been widely used in recent years in environmental studies conducted on different kinds of sampled media. In the present paper, Pb isotope ratios have been used to determine the sources of metal pollution in soils and waters in the Agro Aversano area. During three different sampling phases, a total of 113 surface soils (5-20. cm), 20 samples from 2 soil profiles (0-1. m), 11 stream waters and 4 groundwaters were collected. Major element concentrations in sampled media have been analyzed by the ICP-MS technique. Surface soils (20 samples), all soil profiles and all waters have been also analyzed for Pb isotope compositions by thermal ionization (TIMS). The geochemical data were assessed using statistic methods and cartographically elaborated in order to have a clear picture of the level of disturbance of the area. Pb isotopic data were studied to discriminate between anthropogenic and geologic sources. Our results show that As (5.6-25.6. mg/kg), Cu (9-677. mg/kg), Pb (22-193. mg/kg), Tl (0.53-3.62. mg/kg), V (26-142. mg/kg) and Zn (34-215. mg//kg) contents in analyzed soils, exceed the intervention limits fixed by the Italian Environmental Law for residential areas in some of the sampled sites, while intervention limit for industrial areas is exceeded only for Cu concentrations. Lead isotopic data, show that there is a high similarity between the ratios measured in the leached soil samples and those deriving from anthropic activities. This similarity with anthropogenic Pb is also evident in the ratios measured in both groundwater and stream water samples. ?? 2010 Elsevier B.V.

Journal of Geochemical Exploration↗

USGS2006

Spirit rover localization and topographic mapping at the landing site of Gusev crater, Mars

By sol 440, the Spirit rover has traversed a distance of 3.76 km (actual distance traveled instead of odometry). Localization of the lander and the rover along the traverse has been successfully performed at the Gusev crater landing site. We localized the lander in the Gusev crater using two-way Doppler radio positioning and cartographic triangulations through landmarks visible in both orbital and ground images. Additional high-resolution orbital images were used to verify the determined lander position. Visual odometry and bundle adjustment technologies were applied to compensate for wheel slippage, azimuthal angle drift, and other navigation errors (which were as large as 10.5% in the Husband Hill area). We generated topographic products, including 72 ortho maps and three-dimensional (3-D) digital terrain models, 11 horizontal and vertical traverse profiles, and one 3-D crater model (up to sol 440). Also discussed in this paper are uses of the data for science operations planning, geological traverse surveys, surveys of wind-related features, and other science applications.

Journal of Geophysical Research E: Planets↗

USGS2002

U.S. Geological Survey spatial data access

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has done a progress review on improving access to its spatial data holdings over the Web. The USGS EROS Data Center has created three major Web-based interfaces to deliver spatial data to the general public; they are Earth Explorer, the Seamless Data Distribution System (SDDS), and the USGS Web Mapping Portal. Lessons were learned in developing these systems, and various resources were needed for their implementation. The USGS serves as a fact-finding agency in the U.S. Government that collects, monitors, analyzes, and provides scientific information about natural resource conditions and issues. To carry out its mission, the USGS has created and managed spatial data since its inception. Originally relying on paper maps, the USGS now uses advanced technology to produce digital representations of the Earth’s features. The spatial products of the USGS include both source and derivative data. Derivative datasets include Digital Orthophoto Quadrangles (DOQ), Digital Elevation Models, Digital Line Graphs, land-cover Digital Raster Graphics, and the seamless National Elevation Dataset. These products, created with automated processes, use aerial photographs, satellite images, or other cartographic information such as scanned paper maps as source data. With Earth Explorer, users can search multiple inventories through metadata queries and can browse satellite and DOQ imagery. They can place orders and make payment through secure credit card transactions. Some USGS spatial data can be accessed with SDDS. The SDDS uses an ArcIMS map service interface to identify the user’s areas of interest and determine the output format; it allows the user to either download the actual spatial data directly for small areas or place orders for larger areas to be delivered on media. The USGS Web Mapping Portal provides views of national and international datasets through an ArcIMS map service interface. In addition, the map portal posts news about new map services available from the USGS, many simultaneously published on the Environmental Systems Research Institute Geography Network. These three information systems use new software tools and expanded hardware to meet the requirements of the users. The systems are designed to handle the required workload and are relatively easy to enhance and maintain. The software tools give users a high level of functionality and help the system conform to industry standards. The hardware and software architecture is designed to handle the large amounts of spatial data and Internet traffic required by the information systems. Last, customer support was needed to answer questions, monitor e-mail, and report customer problems.

Journal of Geospatial Engineering↗

USGS2023

The diversity of volcanic hazard maps around the world: Insights from map makers

The IAVCEI Working Group on Hazard Mapping has been active since 2014 and has facilitated several activities to enable sharing of experiences of how volcanic hazard maps are developed and used around the world. One key activity was a global survey of 90 map makers and practitioners to collect data about official, published volcanic hazard maps and how they were developed. The survey asked questions about map content, design, and input data, as well as about the map development process and key lessons learned. Here we present the results of this global survey, which are then used to quantitatively describe and summarise current practices in volcanic hazard map development. We received entries related to 89 volcanic hazard maps (78% long-term/background maps and 22% short-term/crisis hazard maps), covering a total of 80 volcanoes across 28 countries. Although most maps captured in the survey are volcano-scale maps of stratovolcanoes that show similar types of content, such as primary hazard footprints or zones, they vary greatly in input data, communication style, format, appearance, scale, content, and visual design. This diversity stems from a range of factors, including differences in map purpose, the methodology used, the level of understanding of past eruptive history, the prevailing scientific and cartographic practice at the time, the state of volcanic activity, and variations in culture, national map standards and legal requirements. Experiences and lessons shared by our respondents can be divided into six main themes: map design considerations; the process of map development; map audience and map user needs; hazard assessment approach; map availability and accessibility; and external (e.g., political) influences. Insights shared included the importance of: visual design elements, map testing and evaluation, working with stakeholders and end users to improve a map’s efficacy and relevance, and considering possible unanticipated uses of hazard maps. These free-form text insights (i.e., responses to open-ended questions) from map makers and practitioners familiar with the maps lend depth and clarity to our results. They provide a rich complement to our more quantitative analysis of design elements and of approaches used to determine and delineate map zones. Results from our global survey of hazard map makers and practitioners, together with insights from other key initiatives of the Working Group on Hazard Mapping such as the Volcanic Hazard Maps Database (VHMD; https://volcanichazardmaps.org/ ), provide a snapshot of the wide variety of volcanic hazard maps generated over the past decades, and improve our understanding of the diversity across volcanic hazard mapping practices. These initiatives represent important steps towards fulfilling the aims of the Working Group, namely, to construct a framework for a classification scheme for volcanic hazard maps and to promote harmonized terminology, as well as to identify and categorise good practices and considerations for volcanic hazard mapping.

Journal of Applied Volcanology↗

USGS1994

Historical shoreline mapping (II): Application of the Digital Shoreline Mapping and Analysis Systems (DSMS/DSAS) to shoreline change mapping in Puerto Rico

A new, state-of-the-art method for mapping historical shorelines from maps and aerial photographs, the Digital Shoreline Mapping System (DSMS), has been developed. The DSMS is a freely available, public domain software package that meets the cartographic and photogrammetric requirements of precise coastal mapping, and provides a means to quantify and analyze different sources of error in the mapping process. The DSMS is also capable of resolving imperfections in aerial photography that commonly are assumed to be nonexistent. The DSMS utilizes commonly available computer hardware and software, and permits the entire shoreline mapping process to be executed rapidly by a single person in a small lab. The DSMS generates output shoreline position data that are compatible with a variety of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). A second suite of programs, the Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) has been developed to calculate shoreline rates-of-change from a series of shoreline data residing in a GIS. Four rate-of-change statistics are calculated simultaneously (end-point rate, average of rates, linear regression and jackknife) at a user-specified interval along the shoreline using a measurement baseline approach. An example of DSMS and DSAS application using historical maps and air photos of Punta Uvero, Puerto Rico provides a basis for assessing the errors associated with the source materials as well as the accuracy of computed shoreline positions and erosion rates. The maps and photos used here represent a common situation in shoreline mapping: marginal-quality source materials. The maps and photos are near the usable upper limit of scale and accuracy, yet the shoreline positions are still accurate ±9.25 m when all sources of error are considered. This level of accuracy yields a resolution of ±0.51 m/yr for shoreline rates-of-change in this example, and is sufficient to identify the short-term trend (36 years) of shoreline change in the study area.

Puerto Rico↗

USGS1994

Historical shoreline mapping (I): improving techniques and reducing positioning errors

A critical need exists among coastal researchers and policy-makers for a precise method to obtain shoreline positions from historical maps and aerial photographs. A number of methods that vary widely in approach and accuracy have been developed to meet this need. None of the existing methods, however, address the entire range of cartographic and photogrammetric techniques required for accurate coastal mapping. Thus, their application to many typical shoreline mapping problems is limited. In addition, no shoreline mapping technique provides an adequate basis for quantifying the many errors inherent in shoreline mapping using maps and air photos. As a result, current assessments of errors in air photo mapping techniques generally (and falsely) assume that errors in shoreline positions are represented by the sum of a series of worst-case assumptions about digitizer operator resolution and ground control accuracy. These assessments also ignore altogether other errors that commonly approach ground distances of 10 m. This paper provides a conceptual and analytical framework for improved methods of extracting geographic data from maps and aerial photographs. We also present a new approach to shoreline mapping using air photos that revises and extends a number of photogrammetric techniques. These techniques include (1) developing spatially and temporally overlapping control networks for large groups of photos; (2) digitizing air photos for use in shoreline mapping; (3) preprocessing digitized photos to remove lens distortion and film deformation effects; (4) simultaneous aerotriangulation of large groups of spatially and temporally overlapping photos; and (5) using a single-ray intersection technique to determine geographic shoreline coordinates and express the horizontal and vertical error associated with a given digitized shoreline. As long as historical maps and air photos are used in studies of shoreline change, there will be a considerable amount of error (on the order of several meters) present in shoreline position and rate-of- change calculations. The techniques presented in this paper, however, provide a means to reduce and quantify these errors so that realistic assessments of the technological noise (as opposed to geological noise) in geographic shoreline positions can be made.

Journal of Coastal Research↗