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At least 307 records · Page 17Linked to original sources
USGS2018

Presentation of the Dana Medal of the Mineralogical Society of America for 2017 to Thomas W. Sisson

I have the pleasure of introducing Thomas W. Sisson, the Mineralogical Society of America Dana Medalist for 2017. Tom is known for his scientific rigor and landmark publications that have contributed to a diverse spectrum of fields closely tied to the mineralogical sciences. He is particularly recognized for his work on magma differentiation and the role of water in subduction-related magmatism. Beginning with his Ph.D. research with Tim Grove, Tom's early papers showcase difficult high-temperature experiments on hydrous basalt and magmatic processes recorded by the Sierra Nevada batholith. This landmark work was soon followed by ion microprobe measurements of dissolved water concentrations in melt inclusions from a range of arc basalts and by infrared spectrometric determinations of dissolved H2O and CO2 concentrations in unusually primitive arc basalt.

American Mineralogist↗
USGS1984

Estimating the effect of hunting on annual survival rates of adult mallards

Management programs for waterfowl populations include rationale for, and establishment of, hunting regulations. These programs rest partially on the results of scientific studies on the effect of harvest rates on annual survival rates. The evidence of this relationship has changed markedly since the mid-1970's, and it is not widely believed that a largely compensatory relationship exists between hunting mortality and other forms of mortality for the mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos ). This paper employs a general probabilistic model formulated to include a parameter (b) representing a continuum between complete compensation (b=0) and total additivity (b=1). Maximum likelihood estimates of this parameter were computer for 47 data sets of adult mallards banded throughout North American before hunting commenced. We found additional evidence of a highly compensatory mortality process for adult male mallards, while the evidence for adults female mallards remains inconclusive. Effective harvest, land acquisition, and land management programs depend upon additional information on the chronology and mechanisms underlying a compensatory mortality process.

Journal of Wildlife Management↗
USGS1961

Synopsis of geologic and hydrologic results: Chapter A in Geological Survey research 1961

The Geological Survey is engaged in many different kinds of investigations in the fields of geology and hydrology. These investigations may be grouped into several broad, inter-related categories as follows: (a) Economic geology, including engineering geology (b) Regional geologic mapping, including detailed mapping and stratigraphic studies (c) Resource and topical studies (d) Ground-water studies (e) Surface-water studies (f) Quality-of-water studies (g) Field and laboratory research on geologic and hydrologic processes and principles. The Geological Survey also carries on investigations in its fields of competence for other Federal agencies that do not have the required specialized staffs or scientific facilities. Nearly all the Geological Survey's activities yield new data and principles of value in the development or application of the geologic and hydrologic sciences. The purpose of this report, which consists of 4 chapters, is to present as promptly as possible findings that have come to the fore during the fiscal year 1961 the 12 months ending June 30, 1961. The present volume, chapter A, is a synopsis of the highlights of recent findings of scientific and economic interest. Some of these findings have been published or placed on open file during the year; some are presented in chapters B, C, and D; still others have not been published previously. Only part of the scientific and economic results developed during the year can be presented in this synopsis. Readers who wish more complete or more detailed information should consult the bibliography of reports beginning on page A-156 of this volume, and the collection of short articles presented in the companion chapters as follows: Prof. Paper 424-B Articles 1 to 146 Prof. Paper 424-C Articles 147 to 292 Prof. Paper 424-D Articles 293 to 435 A list of investigations in progress in the Geologic and Water Resources Divisions with the names and addresses of the project leaders is given on pages A-110 to A-155 for those interested in work in progress in various areas or on special topics. During the fiscal year 1961, the services of the Geologic and Water Resources Divisions were utilized, or supported financially in part, by the many Federal and State agencies listed on pages A-106 to A-109. The Geological Survey has also cooperated from time to time with other agencies, and some of the work described in these chapters stems from work of previous years in cooperation with agencies not shown on the list. All cooperating agencies are identified where appropriate in the individual short articles in chapters B, C, and D, and they are mentioned in connection with some of the larger programs summarized in chapter A; because of space limitations, however, their contributions are mentioned in many of the short summary paragraphs contained in chapter A.

Professional Paper↗
USGS1985

On the interpretation of satellite-derived gravity and magnetic data for studies of crustal geology and metallogenesis

Satellite-derived global gravity and magnetic maps have been shown to be useful in large-scale studies of the Earth's crust, despite the relative infancy of such studies. Numerous authors have made spatial associations of gravity or magnetic anomalies with geological provinces. Gravimetric interpretations are often made in terms of isostasy, regional variations of density, or of geodesy in general. Interpretations of satellite magnetic anomalies often base assumptions of overall crustal magnetism on concepts of the vertical and horizontal distribution of magnetic susceptibility, then make models of these assumed distributions. The opportunity of improving our satellite gravity and magnetic data through the proposed Geopotential Research Mission should considerably improve the scientific community's ability to analyze and interpret global magnetic and gravity data. As data processing techniques improve, we may expect to see even more useful results of the data.

Conference Paper↗
USGS2011

Indigenous observations of climate change in the Lower Yukon River Basin, Alaska

Natural science climate change studies have led to an overwhelming amount of evidence that the Arctic and Subarctic are among the world's first locations to begin experiencing climate change. Indigenous knowledge of northern regions is a valuable resource to assess the effects of climate change on the people and the landscape. Most studies, however, have focused on coastal Arctic and Subarctic communities with relatively little focus on inland communities. This paper relates the findings from fieldwork conducted in the Lower Yukon River Basin of Alaska in the spring of 2009. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with hunters and elders in the villages of St. Mary's and Pitka's Point, Alaska to document observations of climate change. This study assumes that scientific findings and indigenous knowledge are complementary and seeks to overcome the false dichotomy that these two ways of knowing are in opposition. The observed changes in the climate communicated by the hunters and elders of St. Mary's and Pitka's Point, Alaska are impacting the community in ways ranging from subsistence (shifting flora and fauna patterns), concerns about safety (unpredictable weather patterns and dangerous ice conditions), and a changing resource base (increased reliance on fossil fuels). Here we attempt to address the challenges of integrating these two ways of knowing while relating indigenous observations as described by elders and hunters of the study area to those described by scientific literature.

Human Organization↗
USGS2012

Guidelines for a graph-theoretic implementation of structural equation modeling

Structural equation modeling (SEM) is increasingly being chosen by researchers as a framework for gaining scientific insights from the quantitative analyses of data. New ideas and methods emerging from the study of causality, influences from the field of graphical modeling, and advances in statistics are expanding the rigor, capability, and even purpose of SEM. Guidelines for implementing the expanded capabilities of SEM are currently lacking. In this paper we describe new developments in SEM that we believe constitute a third-generation of the methodology. Most characteristic of this new approach is the generalization of the structural equation model as a causal graph. In this generalization, analyses are based on graph theoretic principles rather than analyses of matrices. Also, new devices such as metamodels and causal diagrams, as well as an increased emphasis on queries and probabilistic reasoning, are now included. Estimation under a graph theory framework permits the use of Bayesian or likelihood methods. The guidelines presented start from a declaration of the goals of the analysis. We then discuss how theory frames the modeling process, requirements for causal interpretation, model specification choices, selection of estimation method, model evaluation options, and use of queries, both to summarize retrospective results and for prospective analyses. The illustrative example presented involves monitoring data from wetlands on Mount Desert Island, home of Acadia National Park. Our presentation walks through the decision process involved in developing and evaluating models, as well as drawing inferences from the resulting prediction equations. In addition to evaluating hypotheses about the connections between human activities and biotic responses, we illustrate how the structural equation (SE) model can be queried to understand how interventions might take advantage of an environmental threshold to limit Typha invasions. The guidelines presented provide for an updated definition of the SEM process that subsumes the historical matrix approach under a graph-theory implementation. The implementation is also designed to permit complex specifications and to be compatible with various estimation methods. Finally, they are meant to foster the use of probabilistic reasoning in both retrospective and prospective considerations of the quantitative implications of the results.

Ecosphere↗
USGS2003

Preliminary preview for a geographic and monitoring program project; a review of point source-nonpoint source effluent trading/offset systems in watersheds

Watershed-based trading and offset systems are being developed to improve policy-maker?s and regulator?s ability to assess nonpoint source impacts in watersheds and to evaluate the efficacy of using market-incentive programs for preserving environmental quality. An overview of the history of successful and failed trading programs throughout the United States suggests that certain political, economic, and scientific conditions within a temporal and spatial setting help meet water quality standards. The current lack of spontaneous trading among dischargers does not mean that a marketable permit trading system is an inherently inefficient regulatory approach. Rather, its infrequent use is the result of institutional and informational barriers. Improving and refining the earth science information and technologies may help determine whether trading is a suitable policy for improving water quality. However, it is debatable whether or not environmental information is the limiting factor. This paper reviews additional factors affecting the potential for instituting a trading policy. The motivation for investigating and reviewing the history of offsets and trading was inspired by a project in the preliminary stages being developed by U.S. Geological Survey Western Geographic Science Center and the Environmental Protection Agency Region IX. An offset feasibility study will be an integrated, map-based approach that incorporates environmental, economic, and statistical information to investigate the potential for using offsets to meet mercury Total Maximum Daily Loads in the Sacramento River watershed. A regional water-quality offset program is being studied that may help known point sources reduce mercury loading more cost effectively by the remediation of abandoned mines or other diffuse sources as opposed to more costly treatment at their own sites. An efficient offset program requires both a scientific basis and methods to translate that science into a regulatory decision framework.

Open-File Report↗
USGS1965

Geological Survey research, 1965, Chapter D

Scientific notes and summaries of investigations by members of the Conservation, Geologic, and Water Resources Divisions tn geology, hydrology, and related fields.

Professional Paper↗
USGS2006

Hydrologic landscape units and adaptive management of intermountain wetlands

daptive management is often proposed to assist in the management of national wildlife refuges and allows the exploration of alternatives as well as the addition of ne w knowledge as it becomes available. The hydrological landscape unit can be a good foundation for such efforts. Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) is in an intermountain basin dominated by vertical tectonics in the Northern Rocky Mountains. A geographic information system was used to define the boundaries for the hydrologic landscape units there. Units identified include alluvial fan, interfan, stream alluvi um and basin flat. Management alternatives can be informed by ex amination of processes that occu r on the units. For example, an ancient alluvial fan unit related to Red Rock Creek appear s to be isolated from stream flow today, with recharge dominated by precipitation and bedrock springs; while other alluvial fan units in the area have shallow ground water recharged from mountain streams and precipitation. The scale of hydrologic processes in interfan units differs from that in alluvial fan hydrologic landscape units. These differences are important when the refuge is evaluating habitat management activities. Hydrologic landscape units provide scientific unde rpinnings for the refuge’s comprehensive planning process. New geologic, hydrologic, and biologic knowledge can be integrated into the hydrologic landscape unit definition and improve adaptive management.

Montana↗
USGS1962

The origin of jasperoid in limestone

The name jasperoid has been applied to rocks that consist mainly of silica and that have formed by replacement. This paper considers only those jasperoids formed by replacement of limestone . Major problems involved in the origin of such jasperoid include: source of the silica; nature of solutions that dissolve, transport, and precipitate silica; and the mechanism of replacement of limestone by silica. The answers to these problems are of practical as well as scientific interest because many jasperoid bodies are closely related to mineralization. Silica may be derived from: juvenile silica of magmatic origin ; silica leached from underlying rocks by hydrothermal solutions; silica locally derived from enclosing rocks by circulating solutions; and silica carried downward in ground water from the weathering of overlying rocks. The nature and the concentration of other substances in solutions influence, in a complex manner, the ability of these solutions to dissolve, transport, and precipitate silica. Nevertheless, the following generalizations can be made. The solubility and rate of solution of silica in water at moderate pressure increase slowly with temperature up to 200 degrees C.; from 200 degrees to 360 degrees C. they increase rapidly; above 360 degrees C. solubility is pressure dependent, increasing steadily at high pressure and decreasing slightly at moderate pressure due to the formation of a vapor phase. The pH has slight effect on the ionic solubility of silica in the range from pH 1 to ph 9 at low temperature. The effect of other components on the solubility of silica is probably subordinate to that of temperature above 200 degrees C., but becomes increasingly important as the temperature falls below that point. Most jasperoid bodies form by both replacement and silica deposition in voids, with replacement dominant during the early phase, and precipitation dominant during later phases. Replacement of limestone by silica is favored by relatively low temperature acid solutions, and the presence of CO 2 . As limestone dissolves, Ca ions are released to promote the precipitation of colloidal silica. Acid solutions then diffuse through this gelatinous film to continue dissolving limestone behind it; the Ca ions diffusing outward cause the precipitation of more colloidal silica at the solution-gel interface. As the gel mass ages, it shrinks, hardens, and ruptures. More silica is then deposited in the fractures. Eventually the gel crystallizes to a dense mass of aphanitic quartz and chalcedony, with shrinkage cracks and vugs filled or coated with younger coarse-grained quartz and other minerals that have been deposited directly from solution. The theory that relatively low temperature favors the formation of jasperoid replacement bodies in carbonate rocks, and high temperature inhibits their formation, offers an explanation for the gap that is observed in some districts between contact metasomatic lime silicates and siliceous replacement of limestone . This gap is characterized by the lack of any reaction between limestone and silica-bearing solutions moving through it.

Economic Geology↗
USGS2010

An evaluation of the global 1-km AVHRR land dataset

This paper summarizes the steps taken in the generation of the global 1-km AVHRR land dataset, and it documents an evaluation of the data product with respect to the original specifications and its usefulness in research and applications to date. The evaluation addresses data characterization, processing, compositing and handling issues. Examples of the main scientific outputs are presented and options for improved processing are outlined and prioritized. The dataset has made a significant contribution, and a strong recommendation is made for its reprocessing and continuation to produce a long-term record for global change research.

International Journal of Remote Sensing↗
USGS2024

Earthquake-triggered ground-failure inventory associated with the M7.1 2018 Southcentral Alaska earthquake

The 30 November 2018, magnitude (Mw) 7.1 earthquake in Southcentral Alaska triggered substantial landslides, liquefaction, and ground cracking throughout the region, resulting in widespread geotechnical damage to buildings and infrastructure. Despite a challenging reconnaissance and remote-sensing environment, we constructed a detailed digital inventory of ground failure associated with the event from several sources. Sources included information derived from remotely sensed data, and data compiled from literature, social media postings, and earthquake damage information compiled by local, state, and federal agencies. Each instance of ground failure within the inventory contains information on the location and type of observed ground failure, and the methods and data used to document the occurrence. Where high-quality data, such as LIDAR or satellite imagery, were available and showed the ground-failure instance clearly, the extent is mapped as a polygon or polyline. All other locations are mapped as points. There are a total of 886 ground-failure instances documented within the inventory (400 landslides, 286 liquefaction features, and 200 features unattributed to specific processes). A semi-quantitative confidence scheme is used to describe mapping certainty associated with each ground-failure feature. This inventory represents a relatively moderate ground-failure-triggering event that occurred in a subarctic environment. This data paper describes the content within the inventory, the inventory data collection procedures, and limitations of the data. Events of this type are not often documented in detail; thus, adding the inventory data to the US Geological Survey Open Repository of Earthquake-Triggered Ground-Failure Inventories further diversifies the datasets available to the scientific community to be used to better understand and model earthquake-triggered ground failure.

Alaska↗
USGS2002

Use of sediment quality guidelines and related tools for the asssessment of contaminated sediments: Executive summary sooklet of a SETAC Pellston Workshop

This publication summarizes the results of a Pellston Workshop sponsored by the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), held 17-22 August 2002 in Fairmont, Montana, USA. The full technical proceedings of the workshop will be published separately by SET AC in 2003. Previous SETAC workshops have focused on sediment ecological risk assessment (ERA) (Dickson et al. 1987; Ingersoll et al. 1997) and porewater toxicity testing (Carr and Nipper 2003). Another recent workshop addressed the application of weight-of-evidence (WOE) methods in ERA (Burton et al. 2002). These previous workshops focused on how, when, and why ERAs are needed in sediment assessments. However, more focused discussion among scientists, environmental regulators, and environmental managers is now needed to build on this previous work. Specifically, additional guidance is needed on procedures that can be used to integrate the information derived from multiple chemical and biological lines of evidence (LOE). These LOE, which are developed through the application of different assessment tools, often include the use of chemically based sediment quality guidelines (SQGs) to evaluate sediment contamination and to help practitioners in sediment assessment and management formulate risk management decisions. This workshop focused on evaluation of the scientific foundations supporting different chemically based numeric SQGs and methods to improve the integration of SQGs into different sediment quality assessment frameworks that include information derived from multiple chemical and biological LOE.

SETAC Pellston Workshop↗
USGS2005

Sonoran Pronghorn Literature: An Annotated Bibliography

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Sonoran pronghorn (Antilocapra americana sonoriensis) is 1 of 5 subspecies of pronghorn in North America. Sonoran pronghorn historically ranged from eastern California into southeastern Arizona and south to Sonora, Mexico. Sonoran pronghorn currently inhabit the Sonoran Desert in Southwestern Arizona and northern Sonora, Mexico. Unfortunately, their future in North America is uncertain. In the United States, as of December 2004, there were <51 freeranging individual Sonoran pronghorn. This subspecies has been listed as endangered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service since 1967. Because of the rapid decline in population size, biologists and managers increased management efforts to reverse the downward spiral to extinction. To assist with enhanced management we have compiled an annotated bibliography of most of the works published on Sonoran pronghorn including peer-reviewed papers (n = 31, including submitted manuscripts), books (n = 26), theses and dissertations (n = 5), conferences, proceedings and symposiums (n = 31), reports (n = 84), abstracts (n = 14), popular articles (n = 41), and others (n = 4). These are the same categories under which we list annotations. Most of the articles involve A. a. sonoriensis. We present the scientific name of other pronghorn when clarification is needed.

Open-File Report↗
USGS2012

Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) contributions to wildlife habitat, management issues, challenges and policy choices--an annotated bibliography

The following bibliography presents brief summaries of documents relevant to Conservation Reserve Program relations to wildlife habitat, habitat management in agriculturally dominated landscapes, and conservation policies potentially affecting wildlife habitats in agricultural ecosystems. Because the literature summaries furnished provide only sweeping overviews, users are urged to obtain and evaluate those papers appearing useful to obtain a more complete understanding of study findings and their implications to conservation in agricultural ecosystems. The bibliography contains references to reports that reach beyond topics that directly relate to the Conservation Reserve Program. Sections addressing grassland management and landowner surveys/opinions, for example, furnish information useful for enhancing development and administration of conservation policies affecting lands beyond those enrolled in conservation programs. Some sections of the bibliography (for example, agricultural conservation policy, economics, soils) are far from inclusive of all relevant material written on the subject. Hopefully, these sections will serve as fundamental introductions to related issues. In a few instances, references may be presented in more than one section of the bibliography. For example, individual papers specifically addressing both non-game and game birds are included in respective sections of the bibliography. Duplication of citations and associated notes has, however, been kept to a minimum.

Scientific Investigations Report↗
USGS1993

Applications of research from the U.S. Geological Survey program, assessment of regional earthquake hazards and risk along the Wasatch Front, Utah

INTERACTIVE WORKSHOPS: ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF THE EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS RESEARCH AND REDUCTION PROGRAM IN THE WASATCH FRONT, UTAH: Interactive workshops provided the forum and stimulus necessary to foster collaboration among the participants in the multidisciplinary, 5-yr program of earthquake hazards reduction in the Wasatch Front, Utah. The workshop process validated well-documented social science theories on the importance of interpersonal interaction, including interaction between researchers and users of research to increase the probability that research will be relevant to the user's needs and, therefore, more readily used. REDUCING EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS IN UTAH: THE CRUCIAL CONNECTION BETWEEN RESEARCHERS AND PRACTITIONERS: Complex scientific and engineering studies must be translated for and transferred to nontechnical personnel for use in reducing earthquake hazards in Utah. The three elements needed for effective translation, likelihood of occurrence, location, and severity of potential hazards, and the three elements needed for effective transfer, delivery, assistance, and encouragement, are described and illustrated for Utah. The importance of evaluating and revising earthquake hazard reduction programs and their components is emphasized. More than 30 evaluations of various natural hazard reduction programs and techniques are introduced. This report was prepared for research managers, funding sources, and evaluators of the Utah earthquake hazard reduction program who are concerned about effectiveness. An overview of the Utah program is provided for those researchers, engineers, planners, and decisionmakers, both public and private, who are committed to reducing human casualties, property damage, and interruptions of socioeconomic systems. PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF EARTHQUAKE MITIGATION POLICIES ALONG THE WASATCH FRONT IN UTAH: The earthquake hazard potential along the Wasatch Front in Utah has been well defined by a number of scientific and engineering studies. Translated earthquake hazard maps have also been developed to identify areas that are particularly vulnerable to various causes of damage such as ground shaking, surface rupturing, and liquefaction. The implementation of earthquake hazard reduction plans are now under way in various communities in Utah. The results of a survey presented in this paper indicate that technical public officials (planners and building officials) have an understanding of the earthquake hazards and how to mitigate the risks. Although the survey shows that the general public has a slightly lower concern about the potential for economic losses, they recognize the potential problems and can support a number of earthquake mitigation measures. The study suggests that many community groups along the Wasatch Front, including volunteer groups, business groups, and elected and appointed officials, are ready for action-oriented educational programs. These programs could lead to a significant reduction in the risks associated with earthquake hazards. A DATA BASE DESIGNED FOR URBAN SEISMIC HAZARDS STUDIES: A computerized data base has been designed for use in urban seismic hazards studies conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey. The design includes file structures for 16 linked data sets, which contain geological, geophysical, and seismological data used in preparing relative ground response maps of large urban areas. The data base is organized along relational data base principles. A prototype urban hazards data base has been created for evaluation in two urban areas currently under investigation: the Wasatch Front region of Utah and the Puget Sound area of Washington. The initial implementation of the urban hazards data base was accomplished on a microcomputer using dBASE III Plus software and transferred to minicomputers and a work station. A MAPPING OF GROUND-SHAKING INTENSITIES FOR SALT LAKE COUNTY, UTAH: This paper documents the development of maps showing a

Professional Paper↗
USGS1956

Selected annotated bibliography of the geology and occurrence of uranium-bearing marine black shales in the United States

The bibliography consists of annotations or abstracts of selected reports that pertain to the geology and occurrence of uranium in marine black shales and their metamorphic equivalents in the United States. Only those reports that were available to the public prior to June 30, 1956, are included. Most of the reports may be consulted in the larger public, university, or scientific libraries. A few reports that have been released to the public in open file may be consulted at designated offices of the Geological Survey. An effort has been made to include only those references to shales whose uranium is believed to be of syngenetic origin and whose major source of radioactivity is uranium. Many general papers on the geology of uranium deposits refer to marine black shales, and some of these general papers have been included.

Trace Elements Investigations↗
USGS2002

Investigating landslides caused by earthquakes - A historical review

Post-earthquake field investigations of landslide occurrence have provided a basis for understanding, evaluating, and mapping the hazard and risk associated with earthquake-induced landslides. This paper traces the historical development of knowledge derived from these investigations. Before 1783, historical accounts of the occurrence of landslides in earthquake are typically so incomplete and vague that conclusions based on these accounts are of limited usefulness. For example, the number of landslides triggered by a given event is almost always greatly underestimated. The first formal, scientific post-earthquake investigation that included systematic documentation of the landslides was undertaken in the Calabria region of Italy after the 1783 earthquake swarm. From then until the mid-twentieth century, the best information on earthquake-induced landslides came from a succession of post-earthquake investigations largely carried out by formal commissions that undertook extensive ground-based field studies. Beginning in the mid-twentieth century, when the use of aerial photography became widespread, comprehensive inventories of landslide occurrence have been made for several earthquakes in the United States, Peru, Guatemala, Italy, El Salvador, Japan, and Taiwan. Techniques have also been developed for performing "retrospective" analyses years or decades after an earthquake that attempt to reconstruct the distribution of landslides triggered by the event. The additional use of Geographic Information System (GIS) processing and digital mapping since about 1989 has greatly facilitated the level of analysis that can applied to mapped distributions of landslides. Beginning in 1984, synthesis of worldwide and national data on earthquake-induced landslides have defined their general characteristics and relations between their occurrence and various geologic and seismic parameters. However, the number of comprehensive post-earthquake studies of landslides is still relatively small, and one of the most pressing needs in this area of research is for the complete documentation of landslides triggered by many more earthquakes in a wider variety of environments.

Surveys in Geophysics↗