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USGS2017

Runoff and water-quality characteristics of three Discovery Farms in North Dakota, 2008–16

Agricultural producers in North Dakota are aware of concerns about degrading water quality, and many of the producers are interested in implementing conservation practices to reduce the export of nutrients from their farms. Producers often implement conservation practices without knowledge of the water quality of the runoff from their farm or if conservation practices they may implement have any effect on water quality. In response to this lack of information, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with North Dakota State University Extension Service and in coordination with an advisory group consisting of State agencies, agricultural producers, and commodity groups, implemented a monitoring study as part of a Discovery Farms program in North Dakota in 2007. Three data-collection sites were established at each of three farms near Underwood, Embden, and Dazey, North Dakota. The purpose of this report is to describe runoff and water-quality characteristics using data collected at the three Discovery Farms during 2008–16. Runoff and water-quality data were used to help describe the implications of agricultural conservation practices on runoff and water-quality patterns. Runoff characteristics of monitoring sites at the three farms were determined by measuring flow volume and precipitation. Runoff at the Underwood farm monitoring sites generally was controlled by precipitation in the area, antecedent soil moisture conditions, and, after 2012, possibly by the diversion ditch constructed by the producer. Most of the annual runoff was in March and April each year during spring snowmelt. Runoff characteristics at the Embden farm are complex because of the mix of surface runoff and flow through two separate drainage tile systems. Annual flow volumes for the drainage tiles sites (sites E2 and E3) were several orders of magnitude greater than measured at the surface water site E1. Site E1 generally only had runoff briefly in March and April during spring snowmelt and during only a few large rain events throughout 2009–16. Flow was somewhat continuous at sites E2 and E3 throughout the year during years of increased precipitation, such as in 2010 and 2011. At Dazey farm, annual flow volumes at the most downstream site D3 for 2010–15 ranged from 88 acre-feet (2012) to 12,060 acre-feet (2010). The largest monthly runoff volumes at D1 (most upstream site; combination of data from site D1a [original site] and site D1b [relocated site]) and D3 were in March and April during spring snowmelt runoff and rain events. At Underwood farm, total ammonia and total phosphorus had the highest concentrations at the most upstream site (U1) and decreased sequentially at sites U2 and U3 downstream. Total ammonia and total phosphorus concentrations at the sites for Underwood farm also generally were higher than measured at sites for the Dazey and Embden farms. At Embden farm, nitrate plus nitrite concentrations were lowest at site E1 (surface-water site) and highest at sites E2 and E3 (drainage tile sites). Nitrate plus nitrite concentrations at sites E2 and E3 also were the highest among all the sites at all three farms. Median total nitrate plus nitrite concentrations for sites E1, E2, and E3 were 0.22, 13, and 10 milligrams per liter as nitrogen, respectively. Nutrient concentrations generally were greater at site D1 (most upstream site) compared to site D3 (most downstream site) at Dazey farm. Higher concentrations at site D1, which is farther upstream and closer to potential sources of nutrients, compared to lower concentrations at site D3, which is farther downstream and receives more runoff, indicates that dilution may be the reason concentrations decrease downstream. Annual loads for chloride at all three Underwood sites were the greatest in 2011 and the least in 2012, which coincided with years of the greatest and least annual flow volume, respectively. Total ammonia had a similar pattern at the three sites. Nitrate plus nitrite loads displayed a different pattern than chloride and total ammonia, indicating possible different sources. Chloride, total ammonia, total phosphorus, and suspended sediment were transported past site U1 mostly in March and the least from July through October. Monthly nitrate plus nitrite loads had a different pattern than the other constituents, indicating other possible sources such as fertilizer application in the surrounding cropland. Annual loads for Embden farm were considerably greater at sites E2 and E3 compared to site E1. Annual yields for all constituents also were substantially greater at sites E2 and E3 compared to site E1, mainly because of a combination of higher flow volumes and small contributing drainage areas at sites E2 and E3 compared to site E1. The greatest annual loads at Dazey farm site D3 for chloride, nitrate plus nitrite, and suspended sediment were in 2010 and 2011, and zero loads were estimated for 2012 because no flow was measured at the site. Mean monthly loads generally were greatest for most constituents in March and April at sites D1 and D3 except for suspended sediment that had the greatest monthly loads in May. To mitigate runoff and water-quality effects of their operations, the producers implemented various agricultural conservation practices before and during the Discovery Farms monitoring. Even though it was difficult to quantify the effects of the agricultural conservation practices implemented at the farms, the data collected from the Discovery Farms program provided a better understanding of some of the variables that affect runoff and water quality.

North Dakota↗

USGS2021

Five-year management plan for establishing and operating NVEWS—The National Volcano Early Warning System

On March 12, 2019, Congress passed the John D. Dingell, Jr., Conservation, Management, and Recreation Act (Public Law 116–9; 133 Stat. 580), in which Title V, §5001 (43 U.S.C. 31k) authorized the establishment of the National Volcano Early Warning and Monitoring System (NVEWS) within the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). Conceived by the USGS Volcano Hazards Program in 2005, NVEWS is designed to be a proactive, fully integrated national-scale volcano monitoring system to ensure that the 161 potentially active volcanoes in the United States and its territories are monitored at levels commensurate with the threat they pose. The core of this report is the first USGS NVEWS five-year management plan, which was presented to Congress on March 12, 2020, and which details the principal elements of NVEWS that will be developed over the next five years, pending sufficient funding. These elements are improvements and enhancements to the monitoring network, a National Volcano Data Center, an external grants activity, an Advisory Committee, an Implementation Committee, and partnerships, with estimated cost projections and annual milestones.

Northern Mariana Islands↗

USGS2014

Report of Committee on Runoff, 1942–43

The Committee on Runoff was not formally constituted until February 6, 1943, when the members of the Section, as listed above, were asked to serve. At the suggestion of President CHURCH the Committee has been so selected that there is Nation‐wide geographic distribution from West to East with the majority of the Committee composed of younger men. If the 33 papers prepared for discussion at the regular sessions of the Section of Hydrology at the annual meeting of 1943 can be used as a measure, war instead of curtailing the activities of the Section has acted as an impetus. Also in the field of hydrology as a whole, war activities have apparently not resulted in a decrease of activities. There has been, however, a gradual decrease of activities in the field of research and an increase of activities in the field of applied hydrology. The enormous expansion of our industrial machine and the great concentration of armies and industrial workers into restricted areas; the demands for water, for power, for food and for municipal use; and operations underlying many of our war efforts, secret and otherwise—all these have created problems requiring the full‐time effort of hydrologists, both in private and governmental service. It is with some degree of satisfaction that each one of us can feel that either as a result of our past research or in our present positions we have been or are doing our bit to win the war.

Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union↗

USGS1965

Waterpower resources of Idaho

There are 46 developed waterpower projects having a total installed generating capacity of 1,472 megawatts (1 MW equals 1,000 kilowatts) in Idaho or on the State boundary line. When sites affecting two or more States are divided equally with the adjoining State, Idaho's allotment is 44 plants with an installed capacity of 1,025 megawatts. The gross theoretical capacity of the developed sites is 1,396 megawatts and of the undeveloped sites is 9,279 megawatts or a total of 10,675 megawatts. Power was computed for gross head, 100 percent efficiency, and average discharge. Grouped by magnitude of capability, there are 781 megawatts at 122 sites with individual capabilities of 1 to 4.99 megawatts, 2,744 megawatts at 120 sites with capabilities between 5 and 19.99 megawatts, and 7,150 megawatts at 63 sites with capabilities greater than 20 megawatts. The Snake River and its tributaries drain about 87 percent of Idaho's total area and contain 94 percent of its potential waterpower. The greatest areal concentration of waterpower, except for isolated reaches of the Snake River, is in the Clearwater River basin with about 264 kilowatts of theoretical potential per square mile. The gross theoretical power of the Salmon River basin, 3,326 MW, is the greatest of all Idaho rivers including the main stem of the Snake River. The first hydroelectric plant in Idaho was placed in operation in 1881. Waterpower has played an important part in the economy of Idaho since that time, and the State is in ninth place nationally in installed capacity of waterpower plants. Privately-owned plants produce 87.5 percent of the present average annual hydroelectric energy, and publicly-owned plants produce 12.5 percent. The principal producers are Idaho Power Company, Washington Water Power Company, Utah Power and Light Company, the Bureau of Reclamation, and the Corps of Army Engineers. The waterpower resources of Idaho are being actively developed at the present time and indications are that this active development rate will continue or accelerate.

Idaho↗

USGS1979

Summary of hydrologic data for Tampa Bypass Canal System, July 1974 to September 1976

The Tampa Bypass Canal is part of a flood-control project east of the city of Tampa under construction by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. It will divert floodwater from the Hillsborough River at points upstream from Tampa through a canal system to McKay Bay. The U.S. Geological Survey began a hydrologic data program in 1974 to provide data needed to identify existing hydrologic conditions and to evaluate the effects of canal construction. A network of surface-water and ground-water sites was designed to monitor changes in nutrients, trace metals, major inorganic constituents, pesticides, and benthic invertebrates along the canal system; to monitor changes in trace elements, common constituents, nitrates, specific conductance, and chlorides in the Floridan aquifer; and to monitor changes in the potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer. In 1974-75, the monitoring program consisted of drilling 12 monitor wells and initiation of the surface-water sampling program. In 1976, the program consisted of drilling five additional wells, continuation of the surface-water sampling, initiation of ground-water sampling program, and monitoring of discharge from springs. Water-quality data for nine surface-water sites in the basin were collected at each of the control structure sites, in the tidal portion of the canal, and at each of the major tributaries to the canal system. Fifteen ground-water sites were sampled annually to provide information on ground-water quality. Ten wells were sampled semiannually for dissolved chloride concentrations to provide information on the freshwater-saltwater interface. Ground-water levels were collected at 34 wells in the areas adjacent to the canal to monitor changes in the potentiometric surface in the Floridan aquifer. Discharge measurements from springs along the canal system were made in 1969-73 and 1976 to provide data on the quantity of ground water entering the canal. A daily discharge station was operated at structure S-160 to determine quantity of water flowing from the canal system into the bay.

Florida↗

USGS2003

A stream-gaging network analysis for the 7-day, 10-year annual low flow in New Hampshire streams

The 7-day, 10-year (7Q10) low-flow-frequency statistic is a widely used measure of surface-water availability in New Hampshire. Regression equations and basin-characteristic digital data sets were developed to help water-resource managers determine surface-water resources during periods of low flow in New Hampshire streams. These regression equations and data sets were developed to estimate streamflow statistics for the annual and seasonal low-flow-frequency, and period-of-record and seasonal period-of-record flow durations. generalized-least-squares (GLS) regression methods were used to develop the annual 7Q10 low-flow-frequency regression equation from 60 continuous-record stream-gaging stations in New Hampshire and in neighboring States. In the regression equation, the dependent variables were the annual 7Q10 flows at the 60 stream-gaging stations. The independent (or predictor) variables were objectively selected characteristics of the drainage basins that contribute flow to those stations. In contrast to ordinary-least-squares (OLS) regression analysis, GLS-developed estimating equations account for differences in length of record and spatial correlations among the flow-frequency statistics at the various stations. A total of 93 measurable drainage-basin characteristics were candidate independent variables. On the basis of several statistical parameters that were used to evaluate which combination of basin characteristics contribute the most to the predictive power of the equations, three drainage-basin characteristics were determined to be statistically significant predictors of the annual 7Q10: (1) total drainage area, (2) mean summer stream-gaging station precipitation from 1961 to 90, and (3) average mean annual basinwide temperature from 1961 to 1990. To evaluate the effectiveness of the stream-gaging network in providing regional streamflow data for the annual 7Q10, the computer program GLSNET (generalized-least-squares NETwork) was used to analyze the network by application of GLS regression between streamflow and the climatic and basin characteristics of the drainage basin upstream from each stream-gaging station. Improvement to the predictive ability of the regression equations developed for the network analyses is measured by the reduction in the average sampling-error variance, and can be achieved by collecting additional streamflow data at existing stations. The predictive ability of the regression equations is enhanced even further with the addition of new stations to the network. Continued data collection at unregulated stream-gaging stations with less than 14 years of record resulted in the greatest cost-weighted reduction to the average sampling-error variance of the annual 7Q10 regional regression equation. The addition of new stations in basins with underrepresented values for the independent variables of the total drainage area, average mean annual basinwide temperature, or mean summer stream-gaging station precipitation in the annual 7Q10 regression equation yielded a much greater cost-weighted reduction to the average sampling-error variance than when more data were collected at existing unregulated stations. To maximize the regional information obtained from the stream-gaging network for the annual 7Q10, ranking of the streamflow data can be used to determine whether an active station should be continued or if a new or discontinued station should be activated for streamflow data collection. Thus, this network analysis can help determine the costs and benefits of continuing the operation of a particular station or activating a new station at another location to predict the 7Q10 at ungaged stream reaches. The decision to discontinue an existing station or activate a new station, however, must also consider its contribution to other water-resource analyses such as flood management, water quality, or trends in land use or climatic change.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS2017

A review of surface energy balance models for estimating actual evapotranspiration with remote sensing at high spatiotemporal resolution over large extents

Many approaches have been developed for measuring or estimating actual evapotranspiration ( ET a ), and research over many years has led to the development of remote sensing methods that are reliably reproducible and effective in estimating ET a . Several remote sensing methods can be used to estimate ET a at the high spatial resolution of agricultural fields and the large extent of river basins. More complex remote sensing methods apply an analytical approach to ET a estimation using physically based models of varied complexity that require a combination of ground-based and remote sensing data, and are grounded in the theory behind the surface energy balance model. This report, funded through cooperation with the International Joint Commission, provides an overview of selected remote sensing methods used for estimating water consumed through ET a and focuses on Mapping Evapotranspiration at High Resolution with Internalized Calibration (METRIC) and Operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEBop), two energy balance models for estimating ET a that are currently applied successfully in the United States. The METRIC model can produce maps of ET a at high spatial resolution (30 meters using Landsat data) for specific areas smaller than several hundred square kilometers in extent, an improvement in practice over methods used more generally at larger scales. Many studies validating METRIC estimates of ET a against measurements from lysimeters have shown model accuracies on daily to seasonal time scales ranging from 85 to 95 percent. The METRIC model is accurate, but the greater complexity of METRIC results in greater data requirements, and the internalized calibration of METRIC leads to greater skill required for implementation. In contrast, SSEBop is a simpler model, having reduced data requirements and greater ease of implementation without a substantial loss of accuracy in estimating ET a . The SSEBop model has been used to produce maps of ET a over very large extents (the conterminous United States) using lower spatial resolution (1 kilometer) Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data. Model accuracies ranging from 80 to 95 percent on daily to annual time scales have been shown in numerous studies that validated ET a estimates from SSEBop against eddy covariance measurements. The METRIC and SSEBop models can incorporate low and high spatial resolution data from MODIS and Landsat, but the high spatiotemporal resolution of ET a estimates using Landsat data over large extents takes immense computing power. Cloud computing is providing an opportunity for processing an increasing amount of geospatial “big data” in a decreasing period of time. For example, Google Earth Engine TM has been used to implement METRIC with automated calibration for regional-scale estimates of ET a using Landsat data. The U.S. Geological Survey also is using Google Earth Engine TM to implement SSEBop for estimating ET a in the United States at a continental scale using Landsat data.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2004

Results of a Two-Dimensional Hydrodynamic and Sediment-Transport Model to Predict the Effects of the Phased Construction and Operation of the Olmsted Locks and Dam on the Ohio River near Olmsted, Illinois

The Olmsted two-dimensional hydrodynamic and sediment-transport model was developed in cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Louisville District. The model was used to estimate the effects that the phased-construction sequence and operation of the Olmsted Locks and Dam had on sediment-transport patterns in the 11.9-mile study reach (Ohio River miles 962.6 to 974.5), particularly over an area of endangered orange-footed pearly mussel (Plethobasus cooperianus) beds beginning approximately 2 miles downstream of the dam construction. A Resource Management Associates?2 (RMA-2) two-dimensional hydrodynamic model for the reach was calibrated to a middle-flow hydraulic survey (350,000 cubic feet per second) and verified with data collected during low- and high-flow hydraulic surveys (72,500 and 770,000 cubic feet per second, respectively). The calibration and validation process included matching water-surface elevations at the construction site and velocity profiles at 15 cross sections throughout the study reach. The sediment-transport aspect of the project was simulated with the Waterways Experiment Station's Sed2D model for a 6-year planned-construction period (construction-phase modeling) and a subsequent 3-year operational period (operational-phase modeling). The sediment-transport results from the construction and operational models both were compared to results of concurrent baseline simulations to determine the changes in erosional and depositional patterns induced by the dam construction and operation throughout the study reach and more importantly over the area of the endangered mussel beds. Simulation of the phased-in-the-wet Olmsted Locks and Dam construction and subsequent operation period resulted in a maximum additional deposition of approximately 2 feet over a localized region of the mussel beds when compared to the bed change simulated with baseline conditions (river conditions that included only the completed locks section). Most areas on the mussel beds experienced less than 0.5 feet of cumulative bed change between the baseline and construction phases during the nine annual hydrographs. The bed change over the 9 year Olmsted Locks and Dam simulation reveals a continuous downstream progression and deepening of the main channel and deposition along the right bank with limited lateral migration toward the more densely populated mussel-bed areas. The sensitivity of the mussels to sediment deposition is difficult to quantify; therefore, the effect of simulated deposition on the welfare of the mussels is uncertain. The model also will provide the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers a tool to predict the locations of high deposition in navigable sections, which can save engineers time and resources when monitoring the need for dredging operations.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS2014

Hydrologic data for the Obed River watershed, Tennessee

The Obed River watershed drains a 520-square-mile area of the Cumberland Plateau physiographic region in the Tennessee River basin. The watershed is underlain by conglomerate, sandstone, and shale of Pennsylvanian age, which overlie Mississippian-age limestone. The larger creeks and rivers of the Obed River system have eroded gorges through the conglomerate and sandstone into the deeper shale. The largest gorges are up to 400 feet deep and are protected by the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act as part of the Obed Wild and Scenic River, which is managed by the National Park Service. The growing communities of Crossville and Crab Orchard, Tennessee, are located upstream of the gorge areas of the Obed River watershed. The cities used about 5.8 million gallons of water per day for drinking water in 2010 from Lake Holiday and Stone Lake in the Obed River watershed and Meadow Park Lake in the Caney Fork River watershed. The city of Crossville operates a wastewater treatment plant that releases an annual average of about 2.2 million gallons per day of treated effluent to the Obed River, representing as much as 10 to 40 percent of the monthly average streamflow of the Obed River near Lancing about 35 miles downstream, during summer and fall. During the past 50 years (1960–2010), several dozen tributary impoundments and more than 2,000 small farm ponds have been constructed in the Obed River watershed. Synoptic streamflow measurements indicate a tendency towards dampened high flows and slightly increased low flows as the percentage of basin area controlled by impoundments increases.

Tennessee↗

USGS1957

Water resources of the Yadkin-Pee Dee River basin, North Carolina

Sufficient water is available in the basin of the Yadkin and Pee Dee Rivers to meet present requirements and those for many years to come if water use increases at about the present rate. Data presented in this report show that the average annual streamflow from approximately 82 percent of the basin area during the 25-year period, 1929-53, was about 6,200 mgd, representing essentially the total available water supply. Comparison of the available water supply to the estimated withdrawal use (excluding water power) of both surface and ground water of 600 mgd indicates the relative utilization of the water resources of the basin at present. If proper pollution controls are observed and practiced so that water in the various streams may be reused several times, the potential water available is even greater than indicated by the above comparison. Preliminary studies indicate that the quantity of water now being withdrawn from ground-water reservoirs in the basin is only a fraction of the total that may be obtained from this source. Twenty-eight of the 64 municipalities having public water-supply systems use surface water; however, as the largest cities in the area use surface supplies, about 85 percent of the water used for public supplies is from surface sources. Of the 20 complete-record stream-gaging stations now in operation in this area 7 have been in operation for 24 years or longer. Periodic measurements of the rate of flow have been made at 31 additional sites on streams scattered widely over the basin. All available streamflow data including those for 1953 are summarized in either graphic or tabular form, or both. Because of the critically low flows occurring during the drought of 1954, several illustrations include data for 1954 and the early months of 1955 for comparison with the minima of previous years. Adequate water for domestic use is available from wells throughout the basin. The consolidated rocks of the Piedmont furnish water for small industries and for municipalities whose population is less than about 1,500. The yields of wells in rock range from less than 1 gpm to as much as 200 gpm with local, rather than regional, geologic factors controlling the yield. The average municipal well in consolidated rocks yields about 30 gpm. In contrast, the sands of the Coastal Plain, in the eastern part of the basin, furnish as much as 500 gpm to individual wells, and ground-water conditions are generally similar throughout that region. A cumulative deficiency in rainfall from 1953 to 1955, has caused ground-water levels to fall below the seasonal averages, but the decline is thought not to indicate a long-term trend. The most serious problem involving future use of ground water is the lack of knowledge of the characteristics of the ground-water provinces in the basin. Generally the chemical quality of the surface waters in the Yadkin-Pee Dee River basin is good. They are low in mineral matter and soft, although some of the surface water contains excessive quantities of iron. In some local areas the streams have been polluted by municipal and industrial wastes. During periods of high runoff many of the streams transport large quantities of suspended sediment. Tributary streams in the lower eastern part of the basin are highly colored because of drainage from swampy areas. Ground water from the consolidated rocks in the Piedmont region is more variable in quality than water from other areas in the basin. The dissolved solids in water from the consolidated rocks ranged from 26 to 1,480 ppm with a median of 109 ppm. Wells in the Cretaceous clay province normally yield slightly acid waters. The pH ranges from 4.7 to 7.7 with a median of 5.3. Generally ground water in this province is extremely soft and low in dissolved solids. Wells in the Cretaceous sand province yield a sodium bicarbonate type of water ranging in hardness from 2 to 130 ppm.

North Carolina, Virginia↗

USGS2024

Report of the River Master of the Delaware River for the period December 1, 2016–November 30, 2017

Executive Summary A Decree of the Supreme Court of the United States, entered June 7, 1954 ( New Jersey v. New York , 347 U.S. 995), established the position of Delaware River Master within the U.S. Geological Survey. In addition, the Decree authorizes the diversion of water from the Delaware River Basin and requires compensating releases from certain reservoirs owned by New York City be made under the supervision and direction of the River Master. The Decree stipulates that the River Master provide reports to the Court, not less frequently than annually. This report is the 64th annual report of the River Master of the Delaware River. The report covers the 2017 River Master report year, from December 1, 2016, to November 30, 2017. During the report year, precipitation in the upper Delaware River Basin was 47.85 inches or 108 percent of the long-term average. On December 1, 2016, combined useable storage in the New York City reservoirs in the upper Delaware River Basin was 110.115 billion gallons or 40.7 percent of combined storage capacity, the lowest combined storage of the 2017 report year. The reservoirs were at about 100 percent of useable capacity on May 31, 2017. Combined storage remained above 80 percent of combined capacity until September 2017. A lower basin drought watch issued by the Delaware River Basin Commission in 2016 extended from the beginning of this report year to January 18, 2017. The drought watch was ended on January 18, 2017, due to increased precipitation in December 2016. River Master operations during the year were conducted as stipulated by the Decree and the Flexible Flow Management Programs. Diversions from the Delaware River Basin by New York City and New Jersey fully complied with the Decree. Reservoir releases were made as directed by the River Master at rates designed to meet the flow objective for the Delaware River at Montague, New Jersey (N.J.), on 52 days during the report year. Interim Excess Release Quantity and conservation releases, designed to relieve thermal stress and protect the fishery and aquatic habitat in the tailwaters of the reservoirs, were made during the report year. Excess Release Quantity and Interim Excess Release Quantity Bank releases were also made during the report year. The water quality in the Delaware River estuary between the streamgages at Trenton, N.J., and Reedy Island Jetty, Delaware, was monitored at various locations. The data on water temperature, specific conductance, dissolved oxygen, and pH were collected continuously by electronic instruments at four sites.

New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania↗

USGS1984

Hydrology of Area 62, Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Provinces, New Mexico and Arizona

This report summarizes available hydrologic data for Area 62 and will aid leasing decisions, and the preparation and appraisal of environmental impact studies and mine-permit applications. Area 62 is located at the southern end of the Rocky Mountain Coal Province in parts of New Mexico and Arizona and includes approximately 9,500 square miles. Surface mining alters, at least temporarily, the environment; if the areas are unreclaimed, there can be long-term environmental consequences. The land-ownership pattern in Area 62 is complicated. The checkerboard pattern created by several types of ownership makes effective management of these lands difficult. The climate generally is semiarid with average annual precipitation ranging from 10 to 20 inches. Pinons, junipers, and grasslands cover most of the area, and much of it is used for grazing by livestock. Soils vary with landscape, differing from flood plains and hillslopes to mountain slopes. The major structural features of this area were largely developed during middle Tertiary time. The main structural features are the southern San Juan Basin and the Mogollon slope. Coal-bearing rocks are present in four Cretaceous rock units of the Mesaverde Group: the Gallup Sandstone, the Dileo Coal Member, and the Gibson Coal Member of the Crevasse Canyon Formation, and the Cleary Coal Member of the Menefee Formation. Area 62 is drained by Black Creek, the Puerco River, the Zuni River, Carrizo Wash-Largo Creek, and the Rio San Jose. Only at the headwaters of the Zuni River is the flow perennial. The streamflow-gaging station network consists of 25 stations operated for a variety of needs. Streamflow changes throughout the year with variation related directly to rainfall and snowmelt. Base flow in Area 62 is zero indicating no significant ground-water discharge. Mountainous areas contribute the highest mean annual runoff of 1.0 inch. Very few water-quality data are available for the surface-water stations. Of the nine surface-water stations that have water-quality data, only one has chemical analyses from more than 10 samples. Therefore, sufficient data to characterize the area in detail are not available. Suspended sediment data are available only for a few surface- water stations in the area. Erosion rates generally are less than 1 acre-foot per square mile per year. Greater erosion rates are found within the badland areas. Water levels are periodically measured at 21 selected wells in Area 62. These observation wells are located mostly along the Rio San Jose and northeast of Gallup, New Mexico. The recharge to ground-water aquifers generally coincide with areas of greater precipitation in the mountainous areas. Depth to water below land surface is generally less than 200 feet. Well yields of 100 gallons per minute are common in most of the area. Ground-water quality is variable both within each aquifer and between aquifers. Water quality generally is best near recharge areas. Historical and current data related to stream discharge, water quality, and suspended sediment are available from computer files in the U.S. Geological Survey's National Water Data Storage and Retrieval System (WATSTORE) and through the National Water Data Exchange (NAWDEX).

Open-File Report↗

USGS1984

Hydrology of Area 62, Northern Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Coal Provinces, New Mexico and Arizona

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS1987

Documentation of a deep percolation model for estimating ground-water recharge

A deep percolation model, which operates on a daily basis, was developed to estimate long-term average groundwater recharge from precipitation. It has been designed primarily to simulate recharge in large areas with variable weather, soils, and land uses, but it can also be used at any scale. The physical and mathematical concepts of the deep percolation model, its subroutines and data requirements, and input data sequence and formats are documented. The physical processes simulated are soil moisture accumulation, evaporation from bare soil, plant transpiration, surface water runoff, snow accumulation and melt, and accumulation and evaporation of intercepted precipitation. The minimum data sets for the operation of the model are daily values of precipitation and maximum and minimum air temperature, soil thickness and available water capacity, soil texture, and land use. Long-term average annual precipitation, actual daily stream discharge, monthly estimates of base flow, Soil Conservation Service surface runoff curve numbers, land surface altitude-slope-aspect, and temperature lapse rates are optional. The program is written in the FORTRAN 77 language with no enhancements and should run on most computer systems without modifications. Documentation has been prepared so that program modifications may be made for inclusions of additional physical processes or deletion of ones not considered important. (Author 's abstract)

Open-File Report↗

USGS1978

Evaluation of thermograph data for California streams

Statistical analysis of water-temperature data from California streams indicates that, for most purposes, long-term operation of thermographs (automatic water-temperature recording instruments) does not provide a more useful record than either short-term operation of such instruments or periodic measurements. Harmonic analyses were made of thermograph records 5 to 14 years in length from 82 stations. More than 80 percent of the annual variation in water temperature is explained by the harmonic function for 77 of the 82 stations. Harmonic coefficients based on 8 years of thermograph record at 12 stations varied only slightly from coefficients computed using two equally split 4-year records. At five stations where both thermograph and periodic (10 to 23 measurements per year) data were collected concurrently, harmonic coefficients for periodic data were defined nearly as well as those for thermograph data. Results of this analysis indicate that, except where detailed surveillance of water temperatures is required or where there is a chance of temporal change, thermograph operations can be reduced substantially without affecting the usefulness of temperature records.

California↗

USGS2017

Hierarchical population monitoring of greater sage-grouse ( Centrocercus urophasianus ) in Nevada and California—Identifying populations for management at the appropriate spatial scale

Population ecologists have long recognized the importance of ecological scale in understanding processes that guide observed demographic patterns for wildlife species. However, directly incorporating spatial and temporal scale into monitoring strategies that detect whether trajectories are driven by local or regional factors is challenging and rarely implemented. Identifying the appropriate scale is critical to the development of management actions that can attenuate or reverse population declines. We describe a novel example of a monitoring framework for estimating annual rates of population change for greater sage-grouse ( Centrocercus urophasianus ) within a hierarchical and spatially nested structure. Specifically, we conducted Bayesian analyses on a 17-year dataset (2000–2016) of lek counts in Nevada and northeastern California to estimate annual rates of population change, and compared trends across nested spatial scales. We identified leks and larger scale populations in immediate need of management, based on the occurrence of two criteria: (1) crossing of a destabilizing threshold designed to identify significant rates of population decline at a particular nested scale; and (2) crossing of decoupling thresholds designed to identify rates of population decline at smaller scales that decouple from rates of population change at a larger spatial scale. This approach establishes how declines affected by local disturbances can be separated from those operating at larger scales (for example, broad-scale wildfire and region-wide drought). Given the threshold output from our analysis, this adaptive management framework can be implemented readily and annually to facilitate responsive and effective actions for sage-grouse populations in the Great Basin. The rules of the framework can also be modified to identify populations responding positively to management action or demonstrating strong resilience to disturbance. Similar hierarchical approaches might be beneficial for other species occupying landscapes with heterogeneous disturbance and climatic regimes.

California, Nevada↗

USGS1964

Water resources of the Green Bay area, Wisconsin

The Green Bay area comprises an area of about 525 square miles in eastern Wisconsin at the south end of Green Bay. It includes the western three-fourths of Brown County and the eastern one-ninth of Outagamie County. In 1960, the population of the area was estimated at 124,000. The most prominent topographic feature is the northwest-facing, southwestward trending Niagara escarpment. The area northwest of the escarpment drains into Green Bay via the Fox River, Suamico River, Duck Creek, and their tributaries. The area southeast of the escarpment is drained by streams that flow into Lake Michigan. The chief sources of surface water in the Green Bay area are the Fox River, Green Bay, and Lake Michigan. Smaller amounts of water are available from the East and Suamico Rivers and other streams. A sandstone aquifer is the principal source of the ground-water supply. The Niagara dolomite, although largely undeveloped, is potentially an important aquifer in the eastern part of the area. Small amounts of water are obtained also from the Platteville formation and from deposits of Pleistocene and Recent age. Water from the surfaceand ground-water sources is moderately hard to very hard. The Fox River, tributary to Lake Michigan at Green Bay, is a significant source of water for industrial use in the Green Bay area. The Menasha Dam, which controls release of water from the Lake Winnebago pool, is the major regulation on the Fox River, and it has considerable effect in reducing peak flows and supplementing low flows in the lower Fox River. The average discharge of the lower Fox River for the period 1898-1959, as measured at the gaging station at Rapide Croche Dam, was 2,687 mgd (million gallons per day). The longest consecutive period during which the discharge averaged less than 500 mgd was 80 days. The average discharge can be expected to fall below 700 mgd about once every 5 years for a 7-day period. In 1959, the average withdrawal of water from the Fox River was about 62 mgd. The water in the river is of the calcium magnesium bicarbonate type and is hard. The small streams in the area are utilized chiefly for stock watering; some of the water, however, is used for irrigation. The water in the small streams is more highly mineralized than the water in the Fox River and is very hard. Large quantities of water are available from Green Bay, but the disposal of industrial waste into the bay has restricted the use of the water. The major withdrawal is for condenser cooling, and, in 1959, it averaged about 415 mgd. The water from Green Bay is moderately hard but is of better chemical quality than the water from the Fox River and the small streams in the area. The only withdrawals of water from Lake Michigan for use in the Green Bay area are made by the city of Green Bay. In 1959, these withdrawals averaged 7.8 mgd. The lower Fox River is not subject to extremes of flow owing to the dampening effect of the Lake Winnebago pool and the regulation of flow at Menasha Dam. Cloudbursts over the lower Fox River valley below Menasha Dam, however, have occasionally caused extremely high water, as in 1922, when the discharge at the mouth of the Fox River was estimated to be about 50,000 mgd. Daily discharges greater than about 13,000 mgd occurred only 7 times in the period 1918-59. The 50-year flood of 15,500 mgd represents an average runoff of less than 2.6 mgd per square mile of drainage area, a relatively low runoff for a 50-year flood in Wisconsin. The sandstone aquifer is the principal source of ground water in the Green Bay area and furnishes water for public supply and industrial use. This aquifer includes rocks of Late Cambrian age, and the Prairie du Chien group and St. Peter sandstone of Ordovician age; it ranges in thickness from 550 to 640 feet. Ground water is found in openings along fractures and bedding planes and in the interstices between sand grains. The sandstone aquifer can support additional development of large supplies of ground water. Wells can be developed in most of the area that will yield 500 gpm (gallons per minute) or more, provided they are properly spaced and penetrate the entire thickness of the aquifer. It is estimated that the perennial yield of the sandstone in the Green Bay area could be at least 30 mgd if the aquifer is properly developed; only 5.4 mgd was withdrawn in 1959. The water from this sandstone aquifer is of the calcium magnesium bicarbonate type, is very hard, and, at a few places, contains objectionable amounts of iron. The Niagara dolomite, potentially a source of moderate to large quantities of water in the eastern part of the area, probably will yield 500 gpm or more to wells. In 1959, the average withdrawal of water for all uses was estimated at 495 mgd, of which 98.2 percent was from surface-water sources and 1.8 percent was from wells. About 485 mgd of water was withdrawn for industrial use, 6 mgd for public supply, and 4 mgd for rural use. The industrial use of water averaged 441 mgd for condenser cooling, 38 mgd fot processing by the paper industry, and 6 mgd for other industrial uses. The city of Green Bay used 7.8 mgd of water from Lake Michigan; other public supplies in the area used 2.6 mgd from wells. Of the withdrawals of water for rural use, about 75 percent was from wells and about 25 percent was from streams. The discharge of wastes into the lower Fox River and its tributary streams has altered the quality of the natural water. The wastes consist chiefly of treated municipal sewage and treated and untreated wastes from the paper industry, rendering plants, a sugar mill, and other industries. The industrial waste makes up about 90 percent of the oxygen-demand loading in the lower Fox River, and treated municipal sewage accounts for about 10 percent. The dissolved-oxygen concentration of water in the lower Fox River decreases rapidly in the vicinity of Green Bay during the summer when the river water is warm. If the periods when the river water is warmest, generally during July and early August, were to coincide with periods of lowest annual streamflow, generally in late August, the river would be unable to assimilate the loading of decomposable organic matter. In an emergency, industrial and public supply wells could supply at least 6 mgd for a sustained period and probably as much as 10 mgd for a period of several days. Six of the wells that formerly supplied the city of Green Bay are maintained in operating condition and could furnish about the same quantity of water as the industrial and other public supply wells. Small streams in the area would be supplemental sources of water, and the water in the Fox River and Green Bay is easily accessible.

Wisconsin↗

USGS2019

Catalog of earthquake parameters and description of seismograph and infrasound stations at Alaskan volcanoes—January 1, 2013, through December 31, 2017

Between January 1, 2013, and December 31, 2017, the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) located a total of 28,172 earthquakes at volcanoes in Alaska. The annual totals are 3,840, 5,819, 5,297, 6,151, and 7,065 earthquakes for the years 2013 through 2017, respectively. This represents an average of 5,634 earthquakes per year, which is comparable to the yearly number of earthquakes AVO located in the previous decade when AVO monitored a similar number of volcanoes. During the reporting period, there was significant seismic activity at 20 of the 34 volcanoes monitored by a seismograph network (Akutan Peak, Aniakchak Crater, Augustine, Mount Cerberus, Mount Cleveland, Fourpeaked Mountain, Mount Gareloi, Great Sitkin, Ilimana, Kanaga, Korovin, Makushin, Mount Martin, Okmok Caldera, Pavlof, Shishaldin, Mount Spurr, Tanaga, Ugashik-Peulik, and Mount Veniaminof) and two volcanoes without a monitoring network (Mount Recheshnoi and Bogoslof Island). Instrumentation highlights for this period include the establishment of a new subnetwork on Mount Cleveland, an accelerated transition from analog to digital telemetry at most subnetworks, and an increased number of broadband and infrasound sensors throughout the AVO network. The operational highlight was the return of seismic monitoring at Korovin and Ugashik-Peulik Volcanoes following network repairs. This catalog includes hypocenters, magnitudes, and statistics of the earthquakes located in 2013–17, along with the associated station parameters, and velocity models.

Alaska↗