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At least 217 records · Page 12Linked to original sources
USGS2003

Determination of water depth with high-resolution satellite imagery over variable bottom types

A standard algorithm for determining depth in clear water from passive sensors exists; but it requires tuning of five parameters and does not retrieve depths where the bottom has an extremely low albedo. To address these issues, we developed an empirical solution using a ratio of reflectances that has only two tunable parameters and can be applied to low-albedo features. The two algorithms--the standard linear transform and the new ratio transform--were compared through analysis of IKONOS satellite imagery against lidar bathymetry. The coefficients for the ratio algorithm were tuned manually to a few depths from a nautical chart, yet performed as well as the linear algorithm tuned using multiple linear regression against the lidar. Both algorithms compensate for variable bottom type and albedo (sand, pavement, algae, coral) and retrieve bathymetry in water depths of less than 10-15 m. However, the linear transform does not distinguish depths >15 m and is more subject to variability across the studied atolls. The ratio transform can, in clear water, retrieve depths in >25 m of water and shows greater stability between different areas. It also performs slightly better in scattering turbidity than the linear transform. The ratio algorithm is somewhat noisier and cannot always adequately resolve fine morphology (structures smaller than 4-5 pixels) in water depths >15-20 m. In general, the ratio transform is more robust than the linear transform.

Limnology and Oceanography↗
USGS2003

Evaporation determined by the energy-budget method for Mirror Lake, New Hampshire

Evaporation was determined by the energy - budget method for Mirror Lake during the open water periods of 1982-1987. For all years, evaporation rates were low in spring and fall and highest during the summer. However, the times of highest evaporation rates varied during the 6 yr. Evaporation reached maximum rates in July for three of the years, in June for two of the years, and in August for one of the years. The highest evaporation rate during the 6-yr study was 0.46 cm d -1 during 27 May-4 June 1986 and 15-21 July 1987. Solar radiation and atmospheric radiation input to the lake and long-wave radiation emitted from the lake were by far the largest energy fluxes to and from the lake and had the greatest effect on evaporation rates. Energy advected to and from the lake by precipitation, surface water, and ground water had little effect on evaporation rates. In the energy - budget method , average evaporation rates are determined for energy - budget periods, which are bounded by the dates of thermal surveys of the lake . Our study compared evaporation rates calculated for short periods, usually ∼1 week, with evaporation rates calculated for longer periods, usually ∼2 weeks. The results indicated that the shorter periods showed more variability in evaporation rates, but seasonal patterns, with few exceptions, were similar.

New Hampshire↗
USGS2003

Gas transfer velocities measured at low wind speed over a lake

The relationship between gas transfer velocity and wind speed was evaluated at low wind speeds by quantifying the rate of evasion of the deliberate tracer, SF 6 , from a small oligotrophic lake . Several possible relationships between gas transfer velocity and low wind speed were evaluated by using 1-min-averaged wind speeds as a measure of the instantaneous wind speed values. Gas transfer velocities in this data set can be estimated virtually equally well by assuming any of three widely used relationships between k 600 and winds referenced to 10-m height, U 10 : (1) a bilinear dependence with a break in the slope at ∼3.7 m s -1 , which resulted in the best fit; (2) a power dependence; and (3) a constant transfer velocity for U 10 < ∼3.7 m s -1 , with a linear dependence on wind speed at higher wind speeds. The lack of a unique relationship between transfer velocity and wind speed at low wind speeds suggests that other processes, such as convective cooling, contribute significantly to gas exchange when the wind speeds are low . All three proposed relationships clearly show a strong dependence on wind for winds >3.7 m s -1 which, coupled with the typical variability in instantaneous wind speeds observed in the field, leads to average transfer velocity estimates that are higher than those predicted for steady wind trends. The transfer velocities predicted by the bilinear steady wind relationship for U 10 < ∼3.7 m s -1 are virtually identical to the theoretical predictions for transfer across a smooth surface.

Limnology and Oceanography↗
USGS2003

Inorganic nitrogen transformations in the bed of the Shingobee River, Minnesota: Integrating hydrologic and biological processes using sediment perfusion cores

Inorganic N transformations were examined in streambed sediments from the Shingobee River using sediment perfusion cores. The experimental design simulated groundwater-stream water mixing within sediment cores, which provided a well-defined one-dimensional representation of in situ hydrologic conditions. Two distinct hydrologic and chemical settings were preserved in the sediment cores: the lowermost sediments, perfused with groundwater, remained anaerobic during the incubations, whereas the uppermost sediments, perfused with oxic water pumped from the overlying water column, simulated stream water penetration into the bed. The maintenance of oxic and anoxic zones formed a biologically active aerobic-anaerobic interface. Ammonium (NH4+) dissolved in groundwater was transported conservatively through the lower core zone but was removed as it mixed with aerated recycle water. Concurrently, a small quantity of nitrate (NO3-) equaling ???25% of the NH4+ loss was produced in the upper sediments. The NH4+ and NO3- profiles in the uppermost sediments resulted from coupled nitrification-denitrification, because assimilation and sorption were negligible. We hypothesize that anaerobic microsites within the aerated upper sediments supported denitrification. Rates of nitrification and denitrification in the perfusion cores ranged 42-209 and 53-160 mg N m-2 day-1, respectively. The use of modified perfusion cores permitted the identification and quantification of N transformations and verified process control by surface water exchange into the shallow hyporheic zone of the Shingobee River.

Minnesota↗
USGS2003

Evidence for nutrient enrichment of high-elevation lakes in the Sierra Nevada, California

Long-term measurements (1983-2001) of nutrients and seston in Emerald Lake (Sierra Nevada, California) have revealed ecologically significant patterns. Nitrate, both during spring runoff and during growing seasons, declined from 1983 through 1995. Declining snowmelt nitrate was caused primarily by changes in snow regime induced by the 1987-1992 drought: years with shallow, early melting snowpacks had lower snowmelt nitrate concentrations owing to less labile N production in catchment soils and longer plant growing seasons. However, nitrate declines during growing seasons carried through the wetter years of 1993-2000 and are likely the result of increased P loading to the lake and the release of phytoplankton from P limitation. Contemporaneous with these changes was an increase in algal biomass and a shift from P limitation toward more frequent N limitation of phytoplankton abundance. Particulate carbon concentrations in the late 1990s were two- to threefold greater than in the early 1980s. These trends were reflected in a larger set of Sierra Nevada lakes sampled as part of synoptic surveys (n = 28). Between 1985 and 1999, nitrate decreased and total P increased in >70% of the lakes sampled. Our data suggest that lakes throughout the Sierra Nevada are experiencing measurable eutrophication in response to the atmospheric deposition of nutrients.

Limnology and Oceanography↗
USGS2004

Denitrification and hydrologic transient storage in a glacial meltwater stream, McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica

In extreme environments, retention of nutrients within stream ecosystems contributes to the persistence of aquatic biota and continuity of ecosystem function. In the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, many glacial meltwater streams flow for only 5–12 weeks a year and yet support extensive benthic microbial communities. We investigated NO 3 − uptake and denitrification in Green Creek by analyzing small‐scale microbial mat dynamics in mesocosms and reach‐scale nutrient cycling in two whole‐stream NO 3 − enrichment experiments. Nitrate uptake results indicated that microbial mats were nitrogen (N)‐limited, with NO 3 − uptake rates as high as 16 nmol N cm −2 h −1 . Denitrification potentials associated with microbial mats were also as high as 16 nmol N cm −2 h −1 . During two whole‐stream NO 3 − −enrichment experiments, a simultaneous pulse of NO 2 − was observed in the stream water. The one‐dimensional solute transport model with inflow and storage was modified to simulate two storage zones: one to account for short time scale hydrologic exchange of stream water into and out of the benthic microbial mat, the other to account for longer time scale hydrologic exchange with the hyporheic zone. Simulations indicate that injected NO 3 − was removed both in the microbial mat and in the hyporheic zone and that as much as 20% of the NO 3 − that entered the microbial mat and hyporheic zone was transformed to NO 2 − by dissimilatory reduction. Because of the rapid hydrologic exchange in microbial mats, it is likely that denitrification is limited either by biotic assimilation, reductase limitation, or transport limitation (reduced NO 2 − is transported away from reducing microbes).

Limnology and Oceanography↗
USGS2005

Radium isotopes in Cayuga Lake, New York: Indicators of inflow and mixing processes

Naturally occurring radium isotopes ( 223 Ra, 224 Ra, 226 Ra, and 228 Ra) were measured in lake and tributary water of Cayuga Lake, New York, during the course of a vernal inflow event in the spring of 2001. A large influx of groundwater, probably from a carbonate aquifer, entered the lake at its extreme southern end early in the vernal inflow event and spread northward, covering an extensive part of the southern end of the lake. The low 228 Ra/ 226 Ra activity ratio of this water mass, compared with bulk lake water, allowed its identification through time. Estimates of mixing with bulk lake water were calculated from changes in the 226Ra content. Groundwater inflow to the lake around the delta of a major tributary was detected on the basis of 223 Ra and 224 Ra activity of lake and tributary water. Inflow of a water mass to the surface of the lake was also detected using 223 Ra and 224 Ra activity. The integrity of this water mass was monitored using short‐lived radium isotopes. Suspended sediment in the lake water is a source of the short‐lived radium isotopes 223 Ra (~2 x 10 −4 dpm L −1 ) and 224 Ra (~3 x x 10 −3 dpm L −1 ), but bottom sediments are a more significant source of 228 Ra. Radium isotopes can be valuable new tools in limnological investigations, allowing detection and monitoring of events and processes such as water inflow and mixing, determining sources of inflowing water, and monitoring introduced water masses as they move within the lake.

New York↗
USGS2005

Toxic Alexandrium blooms in the western Gulf of Maine: The plume advection hypothesis revisited

The plume advection hypothesis links blooms of the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense in the western Gulf of Maine (GOM) to a buoyant plume derived from river outflows. This hypothesis was examined with cruise and moored-instrument observations in 1993 when levels of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins were high, and in 1994 when toxicity was low. A coupled physical-biological model simulated hydrography and A. fundyense distributions. Initial A. fundyense populations were restricted to low-salinity nearshore waters near Casco Bay, but also occurred in higher salinity waters along the plume boundary. This suggests two sources of cells - those from shallow-water cyst populations and those transported to shore from offshore blooms in the eastern segment of the Maine coastal current (EMCC). Observations confirm the role of the plume in A. fundyense transport and growth. Downwelling-favorable winds in 1993 transported the plume and its cells rapidly alongshore, enhancing toxicity and propagating PSP to the south. In 1994, sustained upwelling moved the plume offshore, resulting in low toxicity in intertidal shellfish. A. fundyense blooms were likely nutrient limited, leading to low growth rates and moderate cell abundances. These observations and mechanisms were reproduced by coupled physical-biological model simulations. The plume advection hypothesis provides a viable explanation for outbreaks of PSP in the western GOM, but should be refined to include two sources for cells that populate the plume and two major pathways for transport: one within the low-salinity plume and another where A. fundyense cells originating in the EMCC are transported along the outer boundary of the plume front with the western segment of the Maine coastal current.

Casco Bay, Gulf of Maine↗
USGS2006

Eutrophication of freshwater and marine ecosystems

Initial understanding of the links between nutrients and aquatic productivity originated in Europe in the early 1900s, and our knowledge base has expanded greatly during the past 40 yr. This explosion of eutrophication-related research has made it unequivocally clear that a comprehensive strategy to prevent excessive amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus from entering our waterways is needed to protect our lakes, rivers, and coasts from water quality deterioration. However, despite these very significant advances, cultural eutrophication remains one of the foremost problems for protecting our valuable surface water resources. The papers in this special issue provide a valuable cross section and synthesis of our current understanding of both freshwater and marine eutrophication science. They also serve to identify gaps in our knowledge and will help to guide future research.

Limnology and Oceanography↗
USGS2006

Nitrogen sources and cycling in the San Francisco Bay estuary: A nitrate dual isotopic composition approach

We used the dual isotopic composition of nitrate (δ 15 N and δ 18 O) within the estuarine system of San Francisco (SF) Bay, California, to explore the utility of this approach for tracing sources and cycling of nitrate (NO 2 − ). Surface water samples from 49 sites within the estuary were sampled during July–August 2004. Spatial variability in the isotopic composition suggests that there are multiple sources of nitrate to the bay ecosystem including seawater, several rivers and creeks, and sewage effluent. The spatial distribution of nitrate from these sources is heavily modulated by the hydrodynamics of the estuary. Mixing along the estuarine salinity gradient is the main control on the spatial variations in isotopic composition of nitrate within the northern arm of SF Bay. However, the nitrate isotopic composition in the southern arm of SF Bay exhibited a combination of source mixing and phytoplankton drawdown due mostly to the long residence time during the summer study period. Very low δ 18 O NO3 values (as low as −5.0%) at the Sacramento–San Joaquin River delta region give rise to a wide range of δ 18 ONO3 values in the SF Bay system. The range in δ 18 O NO3 values is more than twice that of δ 15 N NO3 , suggesting that δ 18 O NO3 is an even more sensitive tool for tracing nitrate sources and cycling than δ 15 N NO3 .

Limnology and Oceanography↗
USGS2007

North to Alaska: Evidence for conveyor belt transport of Dungeness crab larvae along the west coast of the United States and Canada

We propose and evaluate the hypothesis that Dungeness crab ( Cancer magister ) larvae from the northwestern coast of the United States and Canada can be transported northward to southeastern Alaska. Larvae collected in southeastern Alaska during May and June 1997&ndash;2004 had abundances and stages that varied seasonally, interannually, and spatially. An unexpected presence of late-stage larvae in spring raises a question regarding their origin, and the most plausible explanation is that they hatched off the northern Washington and British Columbia coasts and were transported to southeastern Alaska. Buoy drift tracks support the hypothesis that larvae released off the northern Washington and British Columbia coasts during the peak hatching season can be physically transported to southeastern Alaska, arriving as late-stage larvae in May and June, when local larvae are only beginning to hatch. A northward spring progression of monthly mean 7&deg;C SST isotherms and phytoplankton blooms provide further evidence that environmental conditions are conducive for larval growth and metabolism during the transport period. The proposed larval transport suggests possible unidirectional gene flow between southern and northern populations of Dungeness crabs in southeastern Alaska.

Limnology and Oceanography↗
USGS2007

The oxygen-18 isotope approach for measuring aquatic metabolism in high-productivity waters

We examined the utility of δ 18 O 2 measurements in estimating gross primary production (P), community respiration (R), and net metabolism (P : R) through diel cycles in a productive agricultural stream located in the midwestern U.S.A. Large diel swings in O 2 (±200 µmol L −1 ) were accompanied by large diel variation in δ 18 O 2 (±10‰). Simultaneous gas transfer measurements and laboratory‐derived isotopic fractionation factors for O 2 during respiration (α r ) were used in conjunction with the diel monitoring of O 2 and δ 18 O 2 to calculate P, R, and P :R using three independent isotope‐based methods. These estimates were compared to each other and against the traditional “open‐channel diel O 2 ‐change” technique that lacked δ 18 O 2 . A principal advantage of the δ 18 O 2 measurements was quantification of diel variation in R, which increased by up to 30% during the day, and the diel pattern in R was variable and not necessarily predictable from assumed temperature effects on R. The P, R, and P :R estimates calculated using the isotope‐based approaches showed high sensitivity to the assumed system fractionation factor (α r ). The optimum modeled ar values (0.986‐0.989) were roughly consistent with the laboratory‐derived values, but larger (i.e., less fractionation) than α r values typically reported for enzyme‐limited respiration in open water environments. Because of large diel variation in O 2 , P :R could not be estimated by directly applying the typical steady‐state solution to the O 2 and 18 O‐O 2 mass balance equations in the absence of gas transfer data. Instead, our results indicate that a modified steady‐state solution (the daily mean value approach) could be used with time‐averaged O 2 and δ 18 O 2 measurements to calculate P :R independent of gas transfer. This approach was applicable under specifically defined, net heterotrophic conditions. The diel cycle of increasing daytime R and decreasing nighttime R was only partially explained by temperature variation, but could be consistent with the diel production/consumption of labile dissolved organic carbon from photosynthesis.

Limnology and Oceanography↗
USGS2008

Nitrogen biogeochemistry of submarine groundwater discharge

To investigate the role of the seepage zone in transport, chemical speciation, and attenuation of nitrogen loads carried by submarine groundwater discharge, we collected nearshore groundwater samples (n = 328) and examined the distribution and isotopic signature (δ 15 N) of nitrate and ammonium. In addition, we estimated nutrient fluxes from terrestrial and marine groundwater sources. We discuss our results in the context of three aquifer zones: a fresh groundwater zone, a shallow salinity transition zone (STZ), and a deep STZ. Groundwater plumes containing nitrate and ammonium occurred in the freshwater zone, whereas the deep STZ carried almost exclusively ammonium. The distributions of redox-cycled elements were consistent with theoretical thermodynamic stability of chemical species, with sharp interfaces between water masses of distinct oxidation : reduction potential, suggesting that microbial transformations of nitrogen were rapid relative to dispersive mixing. In limited locations in which overlap occurs between distribution of nitrate with that of ammonium and dissolved Fe 2+ , changes in concentration and in δ 15 N suggest loss of all species. Concurrent removal of NO 3 − and NH 4 + , both in freshwater and the deep STZ, might occur through a range of mechanisms, including heterotrophic or autotrophic denitrification, coupled nitrfication : denitrification, anammox, or Mn oxidation of NH 4 + . Loss of nitrogen was not apparent in the shallow STZ, perhaps because of short water residence time. Despite organic Cpoor conditions, the nearshore aquifer and subterranean estuary are biogeochemically active zones, where attenuation of N loads can occur. Extent of attenuation is controlled by the degree of mixing of biogeochemically dissimilar water masses, highlighting the critical role of hydrogeology in N biogeochemistry. Mixing is related in part to thinning of the freshwater lens before discharge and to dispersion at the fresh : saline groundwater interface, features common to all submarine groundwater discharge zones.

Limnology and Oceanography↗
USGS2009

Why are diverse relationships observed between phytoplankton biomass and transport time?

Transport time scales such as flushing time and residence time are often used to explain variability in phytoplankton biomass. In many cases, empirical data are consistent with a positive phytoplankton‐transport time relationship (i.e., phytoplankton biomass increases as transport time increases). However, negative relationships, varying relationships, or no significant relationship may also be observed. We present a simple conceptual model, in both mathematical and graphical form, to help explain why phytoplankton may have a range of relationships with transport time, and we apply it to several real systems. The phytoplankton growth‐loss balance determines whether phytoplankton biomass increases with, decreases with, or is insensitive to transport time. If algal growth is faster than loss (e.g., grazing, sedimentation), then phytoplankton biomass increases with increasing transport time. If loss is faster than growth, phytoplankton biomass decreases with increasing transport time. If growth and loss are approximately balanced, then phytoplankton biomass is relatively insensitive to transport time. In analyses of several systems, portions of an individual system, or time periods, apparent insensitivity of phytoplankton biomass to changes in transport time could arise due to the superposition of cases with different phytoplankton‐transport time relationships. Thus, in order to understand or predict responses of phytoplankton biomass to changes in transport time, the relative rates of algal growth and loss must be known.

Limnology and Oceanography↗
USGS2009

Benthic biogeochemical cycling, nutrient stoichiometry, and carbon and nitrogen mass balances in a eutrophic freshwater bay

Green Bay, while representing only ~7% of the surface area and ~1.4% of the volume of Lake Michigan, contains one‐third of the watershed of the lake, and receives approximately one‐third of the total nutrient loading to the Lake Michigan basin, largely from the Fox River at the southern end of the bay. With a history of eutrophic conditions dating back nearly a century, the southern portion of the bay behaves as an efficient nutrient and sediment trap, sequestering much of the annual carbon and nitrogen input within sediments accumulating at up to 1 cm per year. Depositional fluxes of organic matter varied from ~0.1 mol C m22 yr21 to >10 mol C m −2 yr −1 and were both fairly uniform in stoichiometric composition and relatively labile. Estimates of benthic recycling derived from pore‐water concentration gradients, whole‐sediment incubation experiments, and deposition‐burial models of early diagenesis yielded an estimated 40% of the carbon and 50% of the nitrogen recycled back into the overlying water. Remineralization was relatively rapid with ~50% of the carbon remineralized within ~15 yr of deposition, and a mean residence time for metabolizable carbon and nitrogen in the sediments of 20 yr. On average, organic carbon regeneration occurred as 75% CO 2 , 15% CH 4 , and 10% dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Carbon and nitrogen budgets for the southern bay were based upon direct measurements of inputs and burial and upon estimates of export and production derived stoichiometrically from a coupled phosphorus budget. Loadings of organic carbon from rivers were ~3.7 mol m −2 yr −1 , 80% in the form of DOC and 20% as particulate organic carbon. These inputs were lost through export to northern Green Bay and Lake Michigan (39%), through sediment burial (26%), and net CO 2 release to the atmosphere (35%). Total carbon input, including new production, was 4.54 mol m −2 yr −1 , equivalent to ~10% of the gross annual primary production. Nitrogen budget terms were less well quantified, with nitrogen export ~54% of total inputs and burial ~24%, leaving an unquantified residual loss term in the nitrogen budget of ~22%.

Green Bay↗
USGS2009

Hydrodynamic control of phytoplankton loss to the benthos in an estuarine environment

Field experiments were undertaken to measure the influence of hydrodynamics on the removal of phytoplankton by benthic grazers in Suisun Slough, North San Francisco Bay. Chlorophyll a concentration boundary layers were found over beds inhabited by the active suspension feeders Corbula amurensis and Corophium alienense and the passive suspension feeders Marenzellaria viridis and Laonome sp. Benthic losses of phytoplankton were estimated via both the control volume and the vertical flux approach, in which chlorophyll a concentration was used as a proxy for phytoplankton biomass. The rate of phytoplankton loss to the bed was positively correlated to the bed shear stress. The maximum rate of phytoplankton loss to the bed was five times larger than estimated by laboratory-derived pumping rates for the active suspension feeders. Reasons for this discrepancy are explored including a physical mechanism whereby phytoplankton is entrained in a near-bed fluff layer where aggregation is mediated by the presence of mucus produced by the infaunal community.

California↗
USGS2009

The role of effective discharge in the ocean delivery of particulate organic carbon by small, mountainous river systems

Recent research has shown that small, mountainous river systems (SMRS) account for a significant fraction of the global flux of sediment and particulate organic carbon (POC) to the ocean. The enormous number of SMRS precludes intensive studies of the sort conducted on large systems, necessitating development of a conceptual framework that permits cross‐system comparison and scaling up. Herein, we introduce the geomorphic concept of effective discharge to the problem of source‐to‐sink POC transport. This idea recognizes that transport effectiveness is the product of discharge frequency and magnitude, wherein the latter is quantified as a power‐law relationship between discharge and load (the ‚rating curve’). An analytical solution for effective discharge ( Q e ) identifies two key variables: the standard deviation of the natural logarithm of discharge (Σ q ), and the rating exponent of constituent i ( b i ). Data from selected SMRS are used to show that for a given river Q e ‐POC , Q e ‐sediment, Q e for different POC constituents (e.g., POC fossil vs. POC modern ) differs in predictable ways, and Q e for a particular constituent can vary seasonally. When coupled with the idea that discharge peaks of small rivers may be coincident with specific oceanic conditions (e.g., large waves, wind from a certain direction) that determine dispersal and burial, these findings have potentially important implications for POC fate on continental margins. Future studies of POC transport in SMRS should exploit the conceptual framework provided herein and seek to identify how constituent‐specific effective discharges vary between rivers and respond to perturbations.

Limnology and Oceanography↗
USGS2010

Effects of simultaneous climate change and geomorphic evolution on thermal characteristics of a shallow Alaskan lake

We used a hydrodynamics model to assess the consequences of climate warming and contemporary geomorphic evolution for thermal conditions in a large, shallow Alaskan lake. We evaluated the effects of both known climate and landscape change, including rapid outlet erosion and migration of the principal inlet stream, over the past 50 yr as well as future scenarios of geomorphic restoration. Compared to effects of air temperature during the past 50 yr, lake thermal properties showed little sensitivity to substantial (~60%) loss of lake volume, as the lake maximum depth declined from 6 m to 4 m driven by outlet erosion. The direction and magnitude of future lake thermal responses will be driven largely by the extent of inlet stream migration when it occurs simultaneously with outlet erosion. Maintaining connectivity with inlet streams had substantial effects on buffering lake thermal responses to warming climate. Failing to account for changing rates and types of geomorphic processes under continuing climate change may misidentify the primary drivers of lake thermal responses and reduce our ability to understand the consequences for aquatic organisms.

Alaska↗