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At least 199 records · Page 11Linked to original sources
USGS2015

Tidal marsh susceptibility to sea-level rise: importance of local-scale models

Increasing concern over sea-level rise impacts to coastal tidal marsh ecosystems has led to modeling efforts to anticipate outcomes for resource management decision making. Few studies on the Pacific coast of North America have modeled sea-level rise marsh susceptibility at a scale relevant to local wildlife populations and plant communities. Here, we use a novel approach in developing an empirical sea-level rise ecological response model that can be applied to key management questions. Calculated elevation change over 13 y for a 324-ha portion of San Pablo Bay National Wildlife Refuge, California, USA, was used to represent local accretion and subsidence processes. Next, we coupled detailed plant community and elevation surveys with measured rates of inundation frequency to model marsh state changes to 2100. By grouping plant communities into low, mid, and high marsh habitats, we were able to assess wildlife species vulnerability and to better understand outcomes for habitat resiliency. Starting study-site conditions were comprised of 78% (253-ha) high marsh, 7% (30-ha) mid marsh, and 4% (18-ha) low marsh habitats, dominated by pickleweed Sarcocornia pacifica and cordgrass Spartina spp. Only under the low sea-level rise scenario (44 cm by 2100) did our models show persistence of some marsh habitats to 2100, with the area dominated by low marsh habitats. Under mid (93 cm by 2100) and high sea-level rise scenarios (166 cm by 2100), most mid and high marsh habitat was lost by 2070, with only 15% (65 ha) remaining, and a complete loss of these habitats by 2080. Low marsh habitat increased temporarily under all three sea-level rise scenarios, with the peak (286 ha) in 2070, adding habitat for the endemic endangered California Ridgway’s rail Rallus obsoletus obsoletus . Under mid and high sea-level rise scenarios, an almost complete conversion to mudflat occurred, with most of the area below mean sea level. Our modeling assumed no marsh migration upslope due to human levee and infrastructure preventing these types of processes. Other modeling efforts done for this area have projected marsh persistence to 2100, but our modeling effort with site-specific datasets allowed us to model at a finer resolution with much higher local confidence, resulting in different results for management. Our results suggest that projected sea-level rise will have significant impacts on marsh plant communities and obligate wildlife, including those already under federal and state protection. Comprehensive modeling as done here improves the potential to implement adaptive management strategies and prevent marsh habitat and wildlife loss in the future.

California↗
USGS2021

Sediment mobility and river corridor assessment for a 140-kilometer segment of the main-stem Klamath River below Iron Gate Dam, California

This river corridor assessment documents sediment mobility and river response to flood disturbance along a 140-kilometer segment of the main-stem Klamath River below Iron Gate Dam, California. Field and remote sensing methods were used to assess fundamental indicators of active sediment transport and river response to a combination of natural runoff events and reservoir releases during the study period from 2005 to 2019. Discharge measurements at two gaged sites and bed-material samples at two ungaged sites provided direct and indirect evidence of mobile bed conditions, scour and fill, and surface flushing of fine sediment. Available remote-sensing datasets collected in 2005, 2009, 2010, and 2016 were used to determine sediment storage, flood inundation boundaries, and provide indirect evidence of flood-induced scour. These datasets validate channel-maintenance flows defined by Shea and others (2016). During the study period, flows greater than or equal to 6,030 cubic feet per second mobilized the substrate, caused localized scour, and flushed fine sediment from bar surfaces. Flows greater than or equal to 10,400 cubic feet per second stripped vegetation from bars and floodplains and produced deeper scour. Flood disturbance within the study reach is produced by the combined effect of natural flows and reservoir releases, which resulted in mobile bed conditions during the study period. Periodic scour and substrate disturbance are considered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to be integral for managing disease-induced mortality of juvenile and adult salmonids. Substrate conditions conducive to parasites that host infectious diseases, particularly Ceratonova shasta, occur periodically. Additional studies are required to determine whether disease prevalence can be mitigated by well-timed reservoir releases. Study results are useful for interpreting linkages among physical and biological processes and for evaluating the effectiveness of flow management targeted to improve river bed conditions for endangered salmonid populations.

California↗
USGS1991

Organochlorines accumulate in heron and egret chicks sampled in the Houston Ship Channel

The National Contaminant Monitoring Program (NCBP) is an effort of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to measure concentrations of DDT and other persistent chemicals in the environment and to quantify changes in these levels. The NCBP has established a network of sampling stations in segments of the environment for which Federal agencies have authority. The wildlife component of this program, administered by the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, includes the periodic sampling of European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), and American black ducks (Anas rubripes). In order to include an estuarine component into the NCBP, herons and egrets are being evaluated. Eggs and chicks (five, ten, and 15 days of age) of snowy egrets (Egretta thula), and black-crowned night-herons (Nycticorax nycticorax) were collected in Naragansett Bay, RI; the Houston Ship Channel (HSC), TX; and San Francisco Bay, CA. Great egret (Casmerodius albus) eggs and chicks also were collected at the Texas colony. Eggs and chicks were analyzed for organochlorines; trace element and petroleum hydrocarbon analyses are pending. DDE and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were detected in all eggs and chicks, and they accumulated as the chicks grew. At each location, black-crowned nightheron chicks accumulated both DDE and PCBs more rapidly than snowy egrets or great egrets. PCBs accumulated more rapidly in night-heron chicks in Rhode Island than California; however, PCB accumulation for snowy egret chicks did not differ among locations. Contaminant accumulation rates in heron and egret chicks could be used as a new wetland component of the NCBP.

Book chapter↗
USGS2016

Genetic diversity and population structure in the threatened Oregon silverspot butterfly ( Speyeria zerene hippolyta ) in western Oregon and northwestern California— Implications for future translocations and the establishment of new populations

Executive Summary We present results of population genetic analyses performed on Oregon silverspot butterflies (OSB; Speyeria zerene hippolyta ) in western Oregon and northwestern California. We used DNA sequences from a 561-base pair region of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene for a dataset comprised of 112 S. z. hippolyta and 32 S. z. gloriosa individuals collected at 9 locations in western Oregon and northwestern California. The most pertinent findings thus far are summarized as follows: Among OSB populations, genetic diversity is lowest at Mount Hebo and highest at Rock Creek and Bray Point. Of the 32 haplotypes detected in OSB, only 2 were shared among populations (1 shared by Mount Hebo, Cascade Head, Bray Point, and Rock Creek, and 1 shared by Rock Creek and Lake Earl). The remaining 30 haplotypes were identified in individual populations, highlighting the strong differentiation among sites. It is unclear if the shared haplotypes represent widespread, naturally occurring genetic variation or if allele sharing among populations is due to translocation history. Using full siblings of individuals that were released at Rock Creek and Bray Point in 2012 as comparison standards, the analyses suggest that 54 percent of the sampled individuals from Bray Point were naturally recruited into the population and were not originating from the 2012 release of captive reared individuals. Likewise, 33 percent of the analyzed individuals from Rock Creek were naturally recruited. Both of these estimates may be underestimates if the shared alleles that we identified among populations are naturally occurring and not a product of the 2012 translocations. The results suggest that there are about 12–13 COI haplotypes in the Mount Hebo population. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service anticipates using Mount Hebo as the source of individuals when establishing new populations in the future. Nonlinear regression models based on a series of rarefaction analyses suggest that progeny from 12, 37, 109, and 326 female individuals would be required to respectively capture 25, 50, 75, and 90 percent of the allelic diversity from Mount Hebo. Phylogenetic analyses identified two different haplotype groups, but the two groups did not correspond to the different subspecies used in the analysis. One group included 22 S. z. hippolyta haplotypes and 7 haplotypes identified in S. z. gloriosa . The second group included eight haplotypes from S. z. hippolyta, three haplotypes from S. z. gloriosa , and one haplotype that was detected in both subspecies.

California, Oregon↗
USGS2019

Sampling across 20 years (1996–2017) reveals loss of diversity and genetic connectivity in the Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard ( Uma inornata )

The Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard ( Uma inornata ) is a federally threatened, aeolian sand dune obligate, endemic to the Coachella Valley, California. Historically, U. inornata is thought to have formed a large interconnected metapopulation across the valley, with local dune habitat and population size fluctuations linked to stochastic droughts and flooding. Since the 1950s, aeolian habitat in Coachella Valley has declined by 91–95 percent. What remains is highly fragmented by highways and development in the urban communities of the Coachella Valley, raising concerns that fringe-toed lizard movement and gene flow among remaining habitat fragments is limited or nonexistent. We examined population genetic structure across three sample periods (1996, 2008, and 2017). Over that time, this species has shifted from a panmictic condition (1996) with little or no genetic structure between sites to the current (2017) condition where there are now genetically distinct populations. Two severe droughts (2000–04 and 2012–16) may have accelerated this shift through drought-related population declines and subsequent genetic bottlenecks. Using a combination of microsatellite loci and single nucleotide polymorphisms, we found patterns of decreasing genetic connectivity and diversity over time. These patterns are consistent with reduced fringe-toed lizard movement and gene flow among isolated sand dune systems. Low effective population sizes were recovered in some sites, suggesting genetic drift in smaller and fluctuating populations is likely responsible for loss of genetic diversity. A U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recovery objective for this species is to maintain genetic diversity; however, evidence of fragmentation suggests that genetic cohesiveness has been altered and that the diversity maintained in individual fragments is lower than in the total metapopulation. Management actions that increase genetic diversity could be implemented, including translocation. We modeled increasing gene flow between 1–10 percent, which showed that allelic richness could increase rapidly if translocated individuals can survive and reproduce. Establishing translocation protocols could help to avoid the high mortality that has occurred with other reptile translocations. Successful translocations could be a useful strategy to replenish lost genetic diversity after bottlenecks and could mitigate the loss of natural gene flow among populations.

California↗
USGS2018

Distribution, habitat, and population size of Island Night Lizards on San Nicolas Island, California

The Island Night Lizard ( Xantusia riversiana ) was removed from the federal list of threatened species in May 2014. This strongly differentiated species is endemic to 3 of the southern California Channel Islands—San Clemente, San Nicolas, and Santa Barbara. Suitable habitat for Island Night Lizards is extensive on San Clemente Island, and the species is abundant there. Habitat is limited and fragmented, however, on San Nicolas Island and small Santa Barbara Island. Bringing together extensive field surveys and mark-recapture sampling, we synthesize available data for Island Night Lizards on San Nicolas Island and calculate population and density estimates for the species in major habitats on the island. Island Night Lizards are widely distributed across most of the eastern half of San Nicolas Island. In contrast, they are nearly absent over the western third of the island except for isolated populations in boulder beach habitats. We combined mark-recapture population estimates with comprehensive measurements of the extent of cactus, boxthorn, and other habitat types on the island to arrive at a more accurate assessment of the status of Island Night Lizards on San Nicolas Island. High densities of Island Night Lizards on the island are found in small areas of cholla cactus ( Cylindropuntia prolifera; mean of 4100 lizards/ha), boulder beach habitat (mean of 3400 lizards/ha), and prickly pear cactus ( Opuntia spp.; mean of 1700 lizards/ha); low numbers are found in more extensive mixed-shrub habitat (mean of 250 lizards/ha). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service requires a post-delisting program for “monitoring the overall health of the Island Night Lizard” to assure the continued long-term viability of the species in its restricted distribution. The information on population size and habitat presented here will inform and guide conservation and management efforts by the U.S. Navy on San Nicolas Island over the coming years.

California↗
USGS2015

New summer areas and mixing of two greater sandhill crane populations in the Intermountain West

Population delineation throughout the annual life cycle for migratory birds is needed to formulate regional and national management and conservation strategies. Despite being well studied continentally, connectivity of sandhill crane Grus canadensis populations throughout the western portion of their North American range remains poorly described. Our objectives were to 1) use global positioning system satellite transmitter terminals to identify summer distributions for the Lower Colorado River Valley Population of greater sandhill cranes Grus canadensis tabida and 2) determine whether intermingling occurs among any of the western greater sandhill crane populations: Rocky Mountain Population, Lower Colorado River Valley Population, and Central Valley Population. Capture and marking occurred during winter and summer on private lands in California and Idaho as well as on two National Wildlife Refuges: Cibola and Sonny Bono Salton Sea National Wildlife Refuges. A majority of marked greater sandhill cranes summered in what is established Lower Colorado River Valley Population breeding areas in northeastern Nevada and southwestern Idaho. A handful of greater sandhill cranes summered outside of traditional breeding areas in west-central Idaho around Cascade Reservoir near Donnelly and Cascade, Idaho. For example, a greater sandhill crane colt captured near Donnelly in July 2014 survived to winter migration and moved south to areas associated with the Rocky Mountain Population. The integration of the greater sandhill crane colt captured near Donnelly provides the first evidence of potential intermingling between the Lower Colorado River Population and Rocky Mountain Population. We suggest continued marking and banding efforts of all three western populations of greater sandhill cranes will accurately delineate population boundaries and connectivity and inform management decisions for the three populations.

Arizona, California, Idaho↗
USGS1988

Reconnaissance investigation of water quality, bottom sediment, and biota associated with irrigation drainage in the Tulare Lake bed area, southern San Joaquin Valley, California, 1986-87

Concentrations of numerous toxic trace elements and pesticides were measured during 1986 in water, sediment, and biota from three areas near the Tulare Lake Bed, southern San Joaquin Valley, California: Kern National Wildlife Refuge, Pixley National Wildlife Refuge, and Westfarmers evaporation ponds about 5 mi west of Kern National Wildlife Refuge, to determine whether toxic constituents in agricultural-irrigation drainage pose a threat to beneficial uses of water, especially to uses by wildlife. Pesticide residues were found to be low at all three areas. Trace element concentrations were found to be comparatively low at the Kern and Pixley National Wildlife Refuge areas and high at the Westfarmers evaporation ponds. Dissolved selenium concentrations were < 1 micrograms/L (ug/L) in areas on and adjacent to the refuges, but ranged from 110 to 360 ug/L in the saline drainwater impounded in the evaporation ponds. The ratio of mean selenium concentrations in biota from Westfarmers ponds compared to biota from Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge (where adverse effects have been documented) is 5 for waterboatman, 2 for avocet liver, 1 for avocet eggs, and < 1 for widgeongrass. The low concentrations measured at Kern and Pixley National Wildlife Refuges suggest that trace elements and pesticides pose little threat to wildlife there; however, impounded subsurface drainage from agricultural irrigation does pose a threat to wildlife at the nearby Westfarmers ponds. Preliminary results of surveys conducted in 1987 indicated that there are adverse biological effects on shorebirds nesting at the ponds, although interpretation of the magnitude of the effects is premature, pending completion of ongoing studies by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. (Author 's abstract)

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗
USGS1986

Organochlorine chemical residues in bluegills and common carp from the irrigated San Joaquin Valley floor, California

Samples of bluegills ( Lepomis macrochirus ) and common carp ( Cyprinus carpio ) collected from the San Joaquin River and two tributaries (Merced River and Salt Slough) in California were analyzed for 21 organochlorine chemical residues by gas chromatography to determine if pesticide contamination was confined to downstream sites exposed to irrigated agriculture, or if nonirrigated upstream sites were also contaminated. Residues of p,p′ -DDE were detected in all samples of both species. Six other contaminants were also present in both species at one or more of the collection sites: chlordane ( cis -chlordane + trans -nonachlor); p,p′ -DDD; o,p′ -DDT; p,p′ -DDT; DCPA (dimethyl tetrachloroterephthalate); and dieldrin. Concentrations of most of these residues were generally higher in carp than in bluegills; residues of other compounds were found only in carp: α-BHC (α-benzenehexachloride), Aroclor ® 1260, and toxaphene. Concentrations of most organochlorines in fish increased from upstream to downstream. Water quality variables that are influenced by irrigation return flows ( e.g. , conductivity, turbidity, and total alkalinity) also increased from upstream to downstream and were significantly correlated ( P < 0.05) with organochlorine residue levels in the fish. In carp, concentrations of two residues-⌆DDT ( p,p′ -DDD + p,p′ -DDE + + p,p′ -DDT; 1.43 to 2.21 mg/kg wet weight) and toxaphene (3.12 mg/kg wet weight)-approached the highest levels reported by the National Pesticide Monitoring Program for fish from other intensively farmed watersheds of the United States in 1980 to 1981, and surpassed criteria for whole-body residue concentrations recomended by the National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineers for the protection of piscivorous wildlife.

California↗
USGS2000

Mercury bioaccumulation in fish in a region affected by historic gold mining: The South Yuba River, Deer Creek, and Bear River watersheds, California, 1999

Mercury that was used historically for gold recovery in mining areas of the Sierra Nevada continues to enter local and downstream water bodies, including the Sacramento Delta and the San Francisco Bay of northern California. Methylmercury is of particular concern because it is the most prevalent form of mercury in fish and is a potent neurotoxin that bioaccumulates at successive trophic levels within food webs. In April 1999, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with several other agencies the Forest Service (U.S. Department of Agriculture), the Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the California State Water Resources Control Board, and the Nevada County Resource Conservation District began a pilot investigation to characterize the occurrence and distribution of mercury in water, sediment, and biota in the South Yuba River, Deer Creek, and Bear River watersheds of California. Biological samples consisted of semi-aquatic and aquatic insects, amphibians, bird eggs, and fish. Fish were collected from 5 reservoirs and 14 stream sites during August through October 1999 to assess the distribution of mercury in these watersheds. Fish that were collected from reservoirs included top trophic level predators (black basses, Micropterus spp.) intermediate trophic level predators [sunfish (blue gill, Lepomis macrochirus; green sunfish, Lepomis cyanellus; and black crappie, Poxomis nigromaculatus)] and benthic omnivores (channel catfish, Ictularus punctatus). At stream sites, the species collected were upper trophic level salmonids (brown trout, Salmo trutta) and upper-to-intermediate trophic level salmonids (rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss). Boneless and skinless fillet portions from 161 fish were analyzed for total mercury; 131 samples were individual fish, and the remaining 30 fish were combined into 10 composite samples of three fish each of the same species and size class. Mercury concentrations in samples of black basses (Micropterus spp.), including largemouth, smallmouth, and spotted bass, ranged from 0.20 to 1.5 parts per million (ppm), wet basis. Mercury concentrations in sunfish ranged from less than 0.10 to 0.41 ppm (wet). Channel catfish had mercury concentrations from 0.16 to 0.75 ppm (wet). The range of mercury concentrations observed in rainbow trout was from 0.06 to 0.38 ppm (wet), and in brown trout was from 0.02 to 0.43 ppm (wet). Mercury concentrations in trout were greater than 0.3 ppm in samples from three of 14 stream sites. Mercury at elevated concentrations may pose a health risk to piscivorous wildlife and to humans who eat fish on a regular basis. Data presented in this report may be useful to local, state, and federal agencies responsible for assessing the potential risks associated with elevated levels of mercury in fish in the South Yuba River, Deer Creek, and Bear River watersheds.

California↗
USGS1987

Trends in spawning populations of Pacific anadromous salmonids

Annual escapement records for 1968-1984 for five species of Pacific salmon-chinook ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ), coho ( O. kisutch ), sockeye (O. nerka ), pink ( O. gorbuscha ), and chum (O. keta )—and steelhead ( Salmo gairdneri ) were obtained from published and unpublished sources and organized in a computer database. More than 25,500 escapement records were obtained for more than 1,100 locations throughout Alaska, Washington, Idaho, Oregon, and California. Escapement trends for naturally reproducing populations for which data were available for at least 7 years from 1968 to 1984 and at least 4 years from 1975 to 1984 were analyzed by linear regression. Significant trends were observed in about 30% of the 886 populations examined. Trends were summarized by species for three geographic regions in Alaska and four in the Pacific Northwest (including California). For chinook, sockeye, and pink salmon, trends were predominantly increasing in the Alaska regions and either lacking or predominantly decreasing in most of the Pacific Northwest regions; for coho and chum salmon, trends were predominantly decreasing in one or more Alaska regions as well as in most of the Pacific Northwest regions. For steelhead, too few populations were examined to enable us to characterize trends throughout their range. Among the 657 salmonid populations excluded from the trend analysis because the data sets were incomplete, 13 (of which 2 were in Alaska) declined to zero during the period of analysis. For coho, sockeye, pink, and chum salmon and steelhead, major data gaps were revealed by a comparison of the geographic distribution of escapement records with the spawning distribution of the species. For chinook salmon, escapement records were more geographically representative of the spawning distribution.

Fish and Wildlife Technical Report↗
USGS1997

Concentrations of chlorinated organic compounds in biota and bed sediment in streams of the San Joaquin Valley, California

Samples of resident biota and bed sediments were collected in 1992 from 18 sites on or near the floor of the San Joaquin Valley, California, for analysis of 33 organochlorine compounds. The sites were divided into five groups on the basis of physiographic region and land use. Ten compounds were detected in tissue, and 15 compounds were detected in bed sediment. The most frequently detected compound in both media was p,p'-DDE. Concentrations of ??DDT (sum of o,p'- and p, p' forms of DDD, DDE, and DDT) were statistically different among groups of sites for both tissue and sediment (Kruskal- Wallis, p < 0.05). Concentrations in both media were highest in streams draining the west side of the valley. Concentrations of ??DDT in tissue were significantly correlated with specific conductance, pH, and total alkalinity (p < 0.05), which are indicators of the proportion of irrigation return flows in stream discharge. Concentrations in sediment on a dry-weight basis were not correlated with these water-quality parameters, but total organic carbon (TOC) normalized concentrations were significantly correlated with specific conductance and pH (p < 0.05). Regressions of the concentration of ??DDT in tissue, as a function of ??DDT in bed sediment, were significant and explained up to 76% of the variance in the data. The concentration of ??DDT in sediment may be related to mechanisms of soil transport to surface water with bioavailability of compounds related to the concentration of TOC in sediment. The results of this study did not indicate any clear advantage to using either bed sediment or tissues in studies of organochlorine chemicals in the environment. Some guidelines for protection of fish and wildlife were exceeded. Concentrations of organochlorine chemicals in biota, and perhaps sediment, have declined from concentrations measured in the 1970s and 1980s, but remain high compared to other regions of the United States.

Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxico↗
USGS2023

Assessment of potential recovery viability for Colorado Pikeminnow Ptychocheilus lucius in the Colorado River in Grand Canyon

Colorado Pikeminnow Ptychocheilus lucius, the Colorado River’s top native predatory fish, was historically distributed from the Gulf of California delta to the upper reaches of the Green, Colorado, and San Juan rivers in the Colorado River basin in the Southwestern US. In recent decades Colorado Pikeminnow population abundance has declined, primarily due to predation by warmwater nonnative fish and habitat modification following dam construction. Small, reproducing populations remain in the Green and upper Colorado rivers, but their current population trajectory is declining and the San Juan River population is maintained primarily through stocking. As such, establishment of an additional population could aid recovery efforts and increase the species’ resilience and population redundancy. The Colorado River in Grand Canyon once supported Colorado Pikeminnow, but until recently habitat suitability in this altered reach was considered low due to a depressed thermal regime and abundant nonnative predators. Climate change and ongoing drought has presented an opportunity to evaluate the feasibility of native fish restoration in a system where declining reservoir storage has led to warmer releases and re-emergence of riverine habitat. These changes in the physical attributes of the river have occurred in concert with a system-wide decline in nonnative predators. Conditions ten years ago were not compatible with reintroduction feasibility in Grand Canyon; however, due to rapidly changing conditions an expert Science Panel was convened to evaluate whether the physical and biological attributes of this reach could now support various life stages of Colorado Pikeminnow. Here, we report on the evaluation process and outcome from the Science Panel, which developed a science-based recommendation to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service on reintroduction feasibility. The Science Panel concluded that current habitat attributes in Grand Canyon could satisfy some, but perhaps not all, Colorado Pikeminnow life history requirements. This reach has the potential to support adult and sub-adult growth, foraging, migrations, and spawning, but low juvenile survival may limit recruitment. However, populations of other native species are successfully reproducing and increasing in western Grand Canyon, even in areas once considered suboptimal habitat. Should managers decide to move to the next phase of this process, actions such as experimental stocking and monitoring, telemetry studies, bioenergetics modeling, and laboratory-based research may provide additional information to further evaluate a potential reintroduction effort in this rapidly changing but highly altered system.

Arizona↗
USGS2017

Arsenic and mercury contamination related to historical goldmining in the Sierra Nevada, California

Arsenic (As) is a naturally occurring constituent in low-sulphide gold-quartz vein deposits, the dominant deposit type for lode mines in the Sierra Nevada Foothills (SNFH) gold (Au) province of California. Concentrations of naturally occurring mercury (Hg) in the SNFH Au province are low, but extensive use and loss of elemental Hg during amalgamation processing of ore from lode and placer Au deposits led to widespread contamination of Hg in the Sierra Nevada foothills and downstream areas, such as the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta and San Francisco Bay. This review paper provides an overview of As and Hg contamination related to historical Au mining in the Sierra Nevada of California. It summarizes the geology, mineralogy, and geochemistry of the Au deposits, and provides information on specific areas where detailed studies have been done in association with past, ongoing, and planned remediation activities related to the environmental As and Hg contamination. Arsenic is a naturally occurring constituent in low-sulphide Au-quartz vein deposits, the dominant deposit type for lode mines in the Sierra Nevada Foothills (SNFH) Au province ( Ashley 2002 ). Because of elevated concentrations of As in accessory iron-sulphide minerals including arsenopyrite (FeAsS) and arsenian pyrite (Fe(S,As) 2 ), As is commonly a contaminant of concern in lode Au mine waste, including waste rock and mill tailings. The principal pathways of human As exposure from mine waste include ingestion of soil or drinking water, and inhalation of dust in contaminated areas ( Mitchell 2014 ). Concentrations of naturally occurring Hg in the SNFH Au province are low, but extensive use and loss of elemental Hg during amalgamation processing of ore from lode and placer Au deposits ( Churchill 2000 ) led to widespread contamination of Hg in the Sierra Nevada foothills and downstream areas, such as the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta and San Francisco Bay ( Alpers et al. 2005 a ). Conversion of Hg to monomethylmercury (MeHg) by sulphate-reducing and iron-reducing microbes facilitates its bioaccumulation ( Wiener et al. 2003 ). The human Hg exposure pathway of main concern is ingestion of MeHg from sport (non-commercial) fish, especially higher trophic levels such as bass species ( Davis et al. 2008 ). Wildlife exposure to MeHg is also a concern because of chronic and reproductive effects, for example in fish-eating and invertebrate-foraging birds (e.g. Wiener et al. 2003 ; Eagles-Smith et al. 2009 ; Ackerman et al. 2016 ).

California↗
USGS1995

Agricultural drainwater effects on wildlife in central California

In California's San Joaquin Valley and in numerous other agricultural areas in the western U.S., irrigation wastewater may accumulate in confined shallow aquifers, eventually rising to levels that adversely affect crops. To sustain long-term agricultural productivity in these regions, systems for the drainage and disposal of this subsurface wastewater must be installed. 1,2 the drained water may contain an array of soluble chemicals that have been applied to the crops, as well as those that have been leached from native soils. Agricultural drainwater is frequently disposed of by discharging it to surface aquatic systems where these constituents may be directly toxic to aquatic organisms, or they may bioaccumulate through the aquatic food webs upon which birds and other wildlife feed. The focus of this chapter is research conducted since 1983 to assess the effects of wildlife exposure to subsurface agricultural drainwater in the San Joaquin Valley. Agricultural drainwater is discharged primarily to tributaries and wetlands of the San Joaquin River system or, especially in the southern San Joaquin Valley, to evaporation ponds. 3 Because of high nutrient content in the drainwater, evaporation ponds have high levels of biological productivity and provide an abundant food supply for aquatic birds. Aquatic birds (primarily waterfowl and shorebirds) have been the main focus of wildlife research at the evaporation ponds, and at managed wetlands (primarily hunting clubs) within the San Joaquin River system, but mammals, snakes, and frogs have also been studied. Findings of those studies are summarized in this chapter. Other studies have been conducted on fish and aquatic invertebrates in areas receiving agricultural drainwater, but in this review those findings are described only as they relate to dietary exposure of wildlife.

Book chapter↗
USGS1992

Ecology of band-tailed pigeons in Oregon

The ecology of band-tailed pigeons ( Columba fasciata ) was investigated in western Oregon to assess the roles of survival and recruitment to population status and the relation of food, minerals, and diet to reproduction strategy. Band-tailed pigeons congregated at mineral deposits to consume minerals from mid-June to mid-September. Males generally arrived and departed between daylight and 1000 h and females between 0930 and 1200 h, the inverse of the nest attentive schedules for the sexes. The pigeons used one or several adjacent mineral sites throughout the summer and most returned to the same mineral site in subsequent years. Band-tailed pigeons were resident from April through September; migration apparently did not begin before late September. Three indirect sources of evidence indicated that fledging began in June, reached a peak in mid- August, and continued until late September. Second year (SY) band-tailed pigeons apparently began nesting later than and were about one-third as productive as adults. In Oregon, most of the adult population could fledge as many as two young over the 100-110-day nesting period, resulting in a maximum potential recruitment of 47-50% juveniles. We estimated that the fall population contained about 23% juveniles, 12% yearlings, and 65% adults. Mean annual survival of adults was 63.7%, but was year-specific. To maintain a stable population with the estimated survival rates required production near the biotic potential (40.8%). Conversely, a stable population could be attained with the estimated rate of recruitment (23%) and high but realistic rates of survival (adults, 83%; juveniles, 68%). Counts of band-tailed pigeons at mineral sites in Oregon indicated that the population had undergone two periods of modest increase (2.4-7.1% per year) and two periods of sharp decline (10.4-11.1% per year). In 1988 the population index was only 34% of the 1950-88 average. Harvest of band-tailed pigeons in the three Pacific Coast states averaged 414,000 from 1957 to 1983; about 55% of the harvest took place in California, 23% in Washington, and 22% in Oregon. In Oregon, about 65% of the harvest took place in the first 10 days of September and 40% was at mineral sites. Fewer juveniles were shot at mineral sites (13%) than at feeding areas (25%). Hunting at mineral sites was directed at experienced breeders and may be particularly detrimental to the population. However, the overall effect of hunting on abundance was not determined. Band-tailed pigeons fed extensively on elder ( Sambucus spp.) and cascara buckthorn ( Rhamnus purshiana ) berries while nesting. The emergence of Pacific red elder (S. callicarpa) berries in June provided the food resources necessary for initiation of reproduction in Oregon, and probably throughout the Northwest. Elder berries contain little calcium (0.06-0.12%), therefore, the pigeons in the Northwest may require a mineral supplement in their diet. Mineral sites may be the scarcest resource required for reproduction by band-tailed pigeons in the Northwest.

Oregon↗
USGS2012

Population size of island loggerhead shrikes on Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz Islands

Island loggerhead shrikes ( Lanius ludovicianus anthonyi ) are an endemic, genetically distinct subspecies of loggerhead shrike on California's Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and Santa Catalina Islands (USA). This subspecies is listed as a Species of Special Concern by the California Department of Fish and Game and has been petitioned for federal listing under the Endangered Species Act. The combination of suspected low numbers and the possibility of federal listing, prompted us to undertake a study to rigorously estimate the number of remaining individuals on Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz Islands. During the 2009 and 2010 breeding seasons, we surveyed sample units on Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz Islands using a double‐observer method with independent observers to estimate joint detection probabilities ( p ), where we selected units under a stratified random sampling design. We estimated shrike abundance to be 169 in 2009 ( p = 0.476) and 240 in 2010 ( p = 0.825) for Santa Rosa Island, and 35 in 2009 ( p = 0.816) and 42 in 2010 ( p = 0.710) for Santa Cruz Island. These numbers, especially for Santa Rosa Island, are higher than previously reported but nevertheless are still low. Rapid vegetation change on both islands due to recent removal of nonnative herbivores may threaten the habitat and status of this subspecies and, therefore, we suggest that intensive demographic and habitat use research be initiated immediately to obtain additional information vital for the management of this subspecies.

California↗
USGS2020

Intrinsic prey preference and selection of the giant gartersnake: A threatened predator in a nonnative prey-dominated community

The introduction of exotic species into an environment can introduce great change in the trophic dynamics of native species. This is of even greater concern if the native species is of conservation concern. The giant gartersnake, Thamnophis gigas , an endemic predator of the Central Valley of California and a species of conservation concern at the state and federal levels, has declined as a result of conversion of its once vast wetland habitat to agriculture. Another anthropogenic factor contributing to this snake's changing ecology is the introduction of nonnative prey into the species' habitats. These introductions have resulted in a prey community that is almost completely composed of exotic species and have potential for considerable effects. In order to assess prey preference and selection we performed three sets of behavioral trials on naïve neonates. We examined 1) neonate prey preference in response to olfactory cues of prepared prey extracts, 2) neonate consumption of different live prey items presented simultaneously; and 3) terrestrial feeding behavior and/or latency to successful attack. Results from the olfactory study suggest that native Sierran treefrogs, Pseudacris sierra, are preferred by neonates. Results from consumption trials suggest that neonates are more likely to select frog species than fish species. This is the first study that we are aware of that examines prey selection of this threatened species and serves to inform its conservation and management.

Journal of Fish and Wildlife Management↗