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At least 199 records · Page 11Linked to original sources
USGS2018

The confluences of ideas leading to, and the flow of ideas emerging from, individual-based modeling of riverine fishes

In this review article, we trace the history of events leading to the development of individual-based models (IBMs) to represent aquatic organisms in rivers and streams. As a metaphor, we present this history as a series of confluences between individual scientists (tributaries) sharing ideas. We describe contributions of these models to science and management. One iconic feature of river IBMs is the linkage between flow and the physical habitat experienced by individual animals, and the first model that focused on this linkage is briefly described. We continue by reviewing the contributions of riverine IBMs to eight broad areas of scientific inquiry. The first four areas include research to understand 1) the effects of flow regimes on fish populations, 2) species interactions (e.g., size-mediated competition and predation), 3) fish movement and habitat selection, and 4) contaminant and water quality impacts on populations. Next, we review research using IBMs 5) to guide conservation biology of imperiled taxa through population viability analysis, including research 6) to understand river fragmentation by dams and reconnection, 7) to understand genetic outcomes for riverine metapopulations, and 8) to anticipate the future effects of temperature and climate change. This rich body of literature has contributed to both theoretical insights (e.g., about animal behavior and life history) and applied insights (e.g., population-level effects of flow regimes, temperature, and the effects of hydropower and other industries that share rivers with aquatic biota). We finish by exploring promising branches that lie ahead in the braided, downstream channel that represents future river modeling research.

Ecological Modelling↗
USGS2013

Tracking animals in freshwater with electronic tags: past, present and future

Considerable technical developments over the past half century have enabled widespread application of electronic tags to the study of animals in the wild, including in freshwater environments. We review the constraints associated with freshwater telemetry and biologging and the technical developments relevant to their use. Technical constraints for tracking animals are often influenced by the characteristics of the animals being studied and the environment they inhabit. Collectively, they influence which and how technologies can be used and their relative effectiveness. Although radio telemetry has historically been the most commonly used technology in freshwater, passive integrated transponder (PIT) technology, acoustic telemetry and biologgers are becoming more popular. Most telemetry studies have focused on fish, although an increasing number have focused on other taxa, such as turtles, crustaceans and molluscs. Key technical developments for freshwater systems include: miniaturization of tags for tracking small-size life stages and species, fixed stations and coded tags for tracking large samples of animals over long distances and large temporal scales, inexpensive PIT systems that enable mass tagging to yield population- and community-level relevant sample sizes, incorporation of sensors into electronic tags, validation of tag attachment procedures with a focus on maintaining animal welfare, incorporation of different techniques (for example, genetics, stable isotopes) and peripheral technologies (for example, geographic information systems, hydroacoustics), development of novel analytical techniques, and extensive international collaboration. Innovations are still needed in tag miniaturization, data analysis and visualization, and in tracking animals over larger spatial scales (for example, pelagic areas of lakes) and in challenging environments (for example, large dynamic floodplain systems, under ice). There seems to be a particular need for adapting various global positioning system and satellite tagging approaches to freshwater. Electronic tagging provides a mechanism to collect detailed information from imperilled animals and species that have no direct economic value. Current and future advances will continue to improve our knowledge of the natural history of aquatic animals and ecological processes in freshwater ecosystems while facilitating evidence-based resource management and conservation.

Animal Biotelemetry↗
USGS2017

Control of invasive weeds with prescribed burning

Prescribed burning has primarily been used as a tool for the control of invasive late-season annual broadleaf and grass species, particularly yellow starthistle, medusahead, barb goatgrass, and several bromes. However, timely burning of a few invasive biennial broadleaves (e.g., sweetclover and garlic mustard), perennial grasses (e.g., bluegrasses and smooth brome), and woody species (e.g., brooms and Chinese tallow tree) also has been successful. In many cases, the effectiveness of prescribed burning can be enhanced when incorporated into an integrated vegetation management program. Although there are some excellent examples of successful use of prescribed burning for the control of invasive species, a limited number of species have been evaluated. In addition, few studies have measured the impact of prescribed burning on the long-term changes in plant communities, impacts to endangered plant species, effects on wildlife and insect populations, and alterations in soil biology, including nutrition, mycorrhizae, and hydrology. In this review, we evaluate the current state of knowledge on prescribed burning as a tool for invasive weed management.

Weed Technology↗
USGS2025

U.S. Geological Survey research and assessments supporting carbon dioxide removal

Both carbon capture and storage (CCS) and carbon dioxide removal (CDR) are methods to limit future global temperature rise and ocean acidification. CCS sequesters (stores) carbon dioxide (CO2) captured from industrial sources thereby preventing the CO2 from reaching the atmosphere. The captured CO2 is injected into underground geologic reservoirs or is converted into stable industrial products. CDR enhances natural processes or uses technical approaches to remove excess CO2 from the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is sequestered in natural sinks such as vegetation and soil, or injected into underground reservoirs or converted into durable products. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) conducts research and resource assessments that support biologic and geologic CDR approaches. This report will review some of the ongoing USGS CDR research and assessment efforts.

Conference Paper↗
USGS2018

Model structure of the stream salmonid simulator (S3)—A dynamic model for simulating growth, movement, and survival of juvenile salmonids

Fisheries and water managers often use population models to aid in understanding the effect of alternative water management or restoration actions on anadromous fish populations. We developed the Stream Salmonid Simulator (S3) to help resource managers evaluate the effect of management alternatives on juvenile salmonid populations. S3 is a deterministic stage-structured population model that tracks daily growth, movement, and survival of juvenile salmon. A key theme of the model is that river flow affects habitat availability and capacity, which in turn drives density dependent population dynamics. To explicitly link population dynamics to habitat quality and quantity, the river environment is constructed as a one-dimensional series of linked habitat units, each of which has an associated daily time series of discharge, water temperature, and usable habitat area or carrying capacity. The physical characteristics of each habitat unit and the number of fish occupying each unit, in turn, drive survival and growth within each habitat unit and movement of fish among habitat units. The purpose of this report is to outline the underlying general structure of the S3 model that is common among different applications of the model. We have developed applications of the S3 model for juvenile fall Chinook salmon ( Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ) in the lower Klamath River. Thus, this report is a companion to current application of the S3 model to the Trinity River (in review). The general S3 model structure provides a biological and physical framework for the salmonid freshwater life cycle. This framework captures important demographics of juvenile salmonids aimed at translating management alternatives into simulated population responses. Although the S3 model is built on this common framework, the model has been constructed to allow much flexibility in application of the model to specific river systems. The ability for practitioners to include system-specific information for the physical stream structure, survival, growth, and movement processes ensures that simulations provide results that are relevant to the questions asked about the population under study.

Open-File Report↗
USGS1980

The Rocky Mountain population of the western Canada goose: Its distribution, habitats, and management

The western Canada goose ( Branta canadensis moffitti ) was divided into a Rocky Mountain population (RMP) and a Pacific population (PP) on the basis of band recovery patterns examined in this study and recovery data from other investigators. Habitat information obtained from nine cooperating wildlife agencies within the RMP's range provided a base line for evaluating future changes in nesting, molting, and wintering areas. The habitat inventory indicated that none of the seasonal habitats were currently limiting the size of the RMP. The RMP's range is divided into 15 reference areas and these are briefly described. Past studies of Canada geese in the Intermountain Region are reviewed. Topics covered in the discussion of breeding biology are nesting chronology, spring population composition, breeding age, clutch size, nesting success. artificial nesting structures, and gosling survival. Much of the mortality of Canada geese occurs before the birds are fledged. Man-made nesting structures reduce losses during incubation. but research is needed on the relations between brooding sites and gosling survival. Some western Canada geese, mainly prebreeders and unsuccessful nesters, make molt migrations to and from molting areas during and after the brood-rearing season. More than half of these molt-migrants are yearlings too young to nest; there are indications that even some successful nesters leave nesting areas to molt before the fledging of their offspring. Geese 2 years old or older may serve as guides to traditional molting areas for the first-time migrants (i.e., yearlings). Lack of disturbance appears to influence selection of specific molting areas within the nesting range of moffitti , whereas movements of molters out of the Intermountain Region may be related to the evolution of this subspecies. Apparently. molters of both the PP and RMP that leave the Region go to the Northwest Territories of Canada. Although the taxonomic status of moffitti as related to the giant Canada goose ( B. c. maxima ) is unclear. these two subspecies are closely related. as evidenced by similar molt migrations to subarctic Canada. similar blood serum proteins. and only dinal differences in body size ,!!nd color. Mean annual survival rates for birds banded on nesting areas averaged 53 ± 2% ( X̿ ± SE) for immatures and 64 ± 1 % for adults. Mean annual survival rates of adults captured on molting areas averaged 70 ± 1 %. Sport hunting accounts for more than 86% of the mortality of fledged Rocky Mountain geese. and hunting may limit the population's growth. Because the number of waterfowl hunters in the Rocky Mountain West is increasing, the continued expansion or future maintenance of the RMP may require more restrictive hunting regulations. Other management recommendations include the refinement and standardization of spring and winter aerial surveys, and more accurate age and sex determinations when geese are banded and color-marked.

Alberta, Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Mon↗
USGS2016

Review and synthesis: Changing permafrost in a warming world and feedbacks to the Earth System

The permafrost component of the cryosphere is changing dramatically, but the permafrost region is not well monitored and the consequences of change are not well understood. Changing permafrost interacts with ecosystems and climate on various spatial and temporal scales. The feedbacks resulting from these interactions range from local impacts on topography, hydrology, and biology to complex influences on global scale biogeochemical cycling. This review contributes to this focus issue by synthesizing its 28 multidisciplinary studies which provide field evidence, remote sensing observations, and modeling results on various scales. We synthesize study results from a diverse range of permafrost landscapes and ecosystems by reporting key observations and modeling outcomes for permafrost thaw dynamics, identifying feedbacks between permafrost and ecosystem processes, and highlighting biogeochemical feedbacks from permafrost thaw. We complete our synthesis by discussing the progress made, stressing remaining challenges and knowledge gaps, and providing an outlook on future needs and research opportunities in the study of permafrost–ecosystem–climate interactions.

Environmental Research Letters↗
USGS2002

Alien invasions in aquatic ecosystems: Toward an understanding of brook trout invasions and potential impacts on inland cutthroat trout in western North America

Experience from case studies of biological invasions in aquatic ecosystems has motivated a set of proposed empirical “rules” for understanding patterns of invasion and impacts on native species. Further evidence is needed to better understand these patterns, and perhaps contribute to a useful predictive theory of invasions. We reviewed the case of brook trout ( Salvelinus fontinalis )invasions in the western United States and their impacts on native cutthroat trout ( Oncorhynchus clarki ). Unlike many biological invasions, a considerable body of empirical research on brook trout and cutthroat trout is available. We reviewed life histories of each species, brook trout invasions, their impacts on cutthroat trout, and patterns and causes of segregation between brook trout and cutthroat trout. We considered four stages of the invasion process: transport, establishment, spread, and impacts to native species. Most of the research we found focused on impacts. Interspecific interactions, especially competition, were commonly investigated and cited as impacts of brook trout. In many cases it is not clear if brook trout invasions have a measurable impact. Studies of species distributions in the field and a variety of experiments suggest invasion success of brook trout is associated with environmental factors, including temperature, landscape structure, habitat size, stream flow, and human influences. Research on earlier stages of brook trout invasions (transport, establishment, and spread) is relatively limited, but has provided promising insights. Management alternatives for controlling brook trout invasions are limited, and actions to control brook trout focus on direct removal, which is variably successful and can have adverse effects on native species. The management applicability of research has been confounded by the complexity of the problem and by a focus on understanding processes at smaller scales, but not on predicting patterns at larger scales. In the short-term, an improved predictive understanding of brook trout invasions could prove to be most useful, even if processes are incompletely understood. A stronger connection between research and management is needed to identify more effective alternatives for controlling brook trout invasions and for identifying management priorities.

western United States↗
USGS2019

Sediment oxygen demand: A review of in situ methods

Sediment oxygen demand (SOD) plays a fundamental role in biological and chemical processes within the benthic layer of a water body. Land use, including agricultural land use, can affect SOD. However, a wide variety of approaches have been used for in situ SOD chamber construction and data collection, and modelers frequently use SOD values from the literature, without consideration of the differences in methods. Here, we review existing literature on SOD chambers (32 papers, 1974–2016), compare the differences between in situ and laboratory methods, evaluate the effects of in situ chamber mixing, and discuss common challenges associated with deployment. A cohesive in situ sealed chamber design for use with a multiparameter water-quality instrument is presented as an effort toward standardizing SOD methodology, an important consideration that may facilitate integration of SOD data sets among multiple research efforts.

Journal of Environmental Quality↗
USGS2008

Book review: The ecology and behavior of amphibians

This state‐of‐the‐art book has made its timely emergence amid a crisis of global magnitude: that of population declines, range reductions, and extinctions of numerous species of amphibians. A clear understanding of the fundamental concepts in amphibian biology is crucial to the success of any conservation effort. This volume compiles the information necessary to acquire that basic understanding. It is a comprehensive synthesis of both traditional and contemporary facets of amphibian biology, spanning a breadth of topics ranging from phylogeny, physiology, behavior, population and community ecology, and conservation. As such, it undoubtedly takes its place among contemporary volumes as the single, authoritative source for basic topics relevant to amphibian life. Review info: The Ecology and Behavior of Amphibians. By Kentwood D. Wells, 2007. ISBN: 978-0-226-89334-1, 1148 pp.

The Quarterly Review of Biology↗
USGS2002

Proposal for adaptive management to conserve biotic integrity in a regulated segment of the Tallapoosa River, Alabama, U.S.A

Conserving river biota will require innovative approaches that foster and utilize scientific understanding of ecosystem responses to alternative river-management scenarios. We describe ecological and societal issues involved in flow management of a section of the Tallapoosa River (Alabama, U.S.A.) in which a species-rich native fauna is adversely affected by flow alteration by an upstream hydropower dam. We hypothesize that depleted Iow flows, flow instability and thermal alteration resulting from pulsed flow releases at the hydropower dam are most responsible for changes in the Tallapoosa River biota. However, existing data are insufficient to prescribe with certainty minimum flow levels or the frequency and duration of stable flow periods that would be necessary or sufficient to protect riverine biotic integrity. Rather than negotiate a specific change in the flow regime, we propose that stakeholders--including management agencies, the power utility, and river advocates--engage in a process of adaptive-flow management. This process would require that stakeholders (1) develop and agree to management objectives; (2) model hypothesized relations between dam operations and management objectives; (3) implement a change in dam operations; and (4) evaluate biological responses and other stakeholder benefits through an externally reviewed monitoring program. Models would be updated with monitoring data and stakeholders would agree to further modify flow regimes as necessary to achieve management objectives. A primary obstacle to adaptive management will be a perceived uncertainty of future costs for the power utility and other stakeholders. However, an adaptive, iterative approach offers the best opportunity for improving flow regimes for native biota while gaining information critical to guiding management decisions in other flow-regulated rivers.

Conservation Biology↗
USGS2015

Nutrient attenuation in rivers and streams, Puget Sound Basin, Washington

Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus are important for aquatic ecosystem health. Excessive amounts of nutrients, however, can make aquatic ecosystems harmful for biota because enhanced growth and decay cycles of aquatic algae can reduce dissolved oxygen in the water. In Puget Sound marine waters, low dissolved oxygen concentrations are observed in a number of marine nearshore areas, and nutrients have been identified as a major stressor to the local ecosystem. Delivery of nutrients from major rivers in the Puget Sound Basin to the marine environment can be large. Therefore, it is important to identify factors related to how nutrients are retained (attenuated) within streams and rivers in the Puget Sound Basin. Physical, chemical, and biological factors related to nutrient attenuation were identified through a review of related scientific literature. Numerous empirical modeling approaches for estimating nutrient attenuation in streams and rivers also were compiled, and a subset of these models was applied to the Puget Sound Basin. In particular, models based on the physical characteristics of a river reach (RivR-N model) and on the physical and biological features of a river reach (v f model) were used and compared for the 17 major rivers draining to the Puget Sound. Data on the relative amount of instream attenuation (the fraction of nutrient input removed per kilometer of stream reach) showed some common and general themes. Firstly, headwater reaches throughout the Puget Sound Basin tend to be better than the main stems of the major rivers at attenuating nitrate and orthophosphorus (ortho-P). Secondly, rivers are more efficient at attenuating nitrate than ortho-P, probably because of the close relation between phosphorus and suspended sediment, which was not captured fully in the models. Thirdly, when comparing the RivR-N and v f models for nitrate, physical characteristics of the channel may be more effective predictors of relative nitrate attenuation for main stem reaches, whereas biological factors may be more effective predictors in headwater reaches. These results are explained in terms of four primary factors of attenuation: sinuosity, channel slope, specific discharge, and uptake velocity (v f ) of the reach. A simple scoring procedure based on these four factors showed that reaches where attenuation scores were high had higher relative attenuation of nutrients from the RivR-N and v f models. This attenuation "scorecard" can be used to quickly assess the potential for a given reach to attenuate nutrients. Seasonal relative attenuation at three case studies was greater in summer months (July through September) and much lower and almost constant from January through June. An analysis of relative attenuation across a range of nutrient concentrations showed that, at some point, relative instream attenuation is minimized. For nitrate, relative attenuation reached a minimum value greater than 3 milligrams of nitrogen per liter (mg N/L) during low flow and 1 mg N/L during high flow. For orthophosphate, minimum relative attenuation was observed at about 0.1 milligram of phosphorus per liter (mg P/L) for both low- and high-flow conditions. Generally, the temporal dynamics of nutrient attenuation are dependent on the travel time through a given reach, the proportion of flow in contact with the sediment, and the amount of biological activity. Improved understanding of nutrient attenuation in Puget Sound Basin will benefit from the compilation of more detailed data for specific discharge, channel slope, and channel sinuosity in Puget Sound streams and rivers. Additionally, field studies examining upstream-downstream changes in nutrient load and field-based measurements of v f are needed. From a management perspective, preservation and improvement of instream nutrient attenuation should focus on increasing the travel time through a reach and contact time of water sediment (reactive) surfaces and lowering nutrient concentrations (and loads) to avoid saturation of instream attenuation and increase attenuation efficiency. These goals can be reached by maintaining and restoring channel-flood plain connectivity, maintaining and restoring healthy riparian zones along streams, managing point and nonpoint nutrient loads to streams and rivers, and restoring channel features that promote attenuation such as the addition of woody debris and maintaining pool-riffle morphologies. Many of these management approaches are already being undertaken during projects aimed to restore quality salmon habitat. Therefore, there is a dual benefit to these projects that also may lead to enhanced potential for nitrogen and phosphorus attenuation.

Washington↗
USGS2015

Moving environmental DNA methods from concept to practice for monitoring aquatic macroorganisms

The discovery that macroorganisms can be detected from their environmental DNA (eDNA) in aquatic systems has immense potential for the conservation of biological diversity. This special issue contains 11 papers that review and advance the field of eDNA detection of vertebrates and other macroorganisms, including studies of eDNA production, transport, and degradation; sample collection and processing to maximize detection rates; and applications of eDNA for conservation using citizen scientists. This body of work is an important contribution to the ongoing efforts to take eDNA detection of macroorganisms from technical breakthrough to established, reliable method that can be used in survey, monitoring, and research applications worldwide. While the rapid advances in this field are remarkable, important challenges remain, including consensus on best practices for collection and analysis, understanding of eDNA diffusion and transport, and avoidance of inhibition in sample collection and processing. Nonetheless, as demonstrated in this special issue, eDNA techniques for research and monitoring are beginning to realize their potential for contributing to the conservation of biodiversity globally.

Biological Conservation↗
USGS2023

Rivers of the Lower Mississippi Basin

Discussed in this chapter are seven significant tributaries of the Lower Mississippi River and its major distributary. As a group, these eight rivers and their basins encompass substantial variation in physical form, hydrology, biota, ecology, and human impacts. The Current River, Ouachita River, and Saline River, flow to the Mississippi out of the U.S. Interior Highlands. The Cache River basin, centered in Arkansas, contains a vast expanse of bottomland hardwood forest and is famous for wintering waterfowl. The Hatchie River, flowing west out of Tennessee, is the longest free-flowing tributary of the Lower Mississippi River and famous for its rich diversity of mussels and fishes. The Wolf River of Tennessee supports a magnificent bald cypress-tupelo swamp and is notable as a protected urban river that flows through Memphis. The Big Sunflower River begins and ends in the alluvial floodplain of the Mississippi River and flows through a basin of intense agriculture and historical human conflict. The Atchafalaya River, the primary distributary of the Mississippi River, supports the nation's largest expanse of bottomland hardwood forest and swamp wetlands. In this chapter, we review the physiography, geomorphology, hydrology, water chemistry, land use, biological diversity, ecological processes, human impacts, and areas of need for research and management of each of these eight rivers and their basins.

Lower Mississippi River basin↗
USGS2010

Ecotoxicology of organic contaminants to amphibians

The effects of organic contaminants on amphibians are poorly known but of considerable interest. These contaminants include the highly toxic dioxins and furans as well as PCBs, PAHs and organochlorine pesticides. Although these compounds may have lower acute toxicity than dioxins and furans, they have been implicated in several problems associated with genotoxicity, endocrine disruption, malformations and reduced growth. There is evidence that amphibian tadpoles bioaccumulate these organic compounds and may have biological concentrating factors ranging in the hundreds. This chapter reviews what is known about the effects and concentrations of organic contaminants in amphibians and provides recommendations for further research

Book chapter↗
USGS2005

14. The Herons (Ardeidae)

Herons and their close relatives, the egrets and bitterns, comprise sixty species in total and are found all over the world except in polar regions, and are a strikingly beautiful part of the wetlands they inhabit. They are particularly abundant and popular in South West USA, especially Florida. Herons are a diverse group, easily recognized by their long legs, necks and bills. Many species are notable for their sociality as they feed, roost, and nest together in single or mixed species assemblages. The authors have extensive experience of research and observation of these birds and this book provides an up to date comprehensive review of the herons of the world. Covering their biology, distribution, description, systematics, breeding, feeding, and conservation, James Hancock and James Kushlan have distilled their lifetimes' research on the heron into one volume. This volume is complemented by beautiful color paintings especially painted for the book, color photographs, and distribution maps.

Book↗
USGS1995

The ecology of cormorants: some research needs and recommendations

Concerns about Double-crested Cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) have arisen because of their rapid population increase across North America and their economic impact on several aquaculture and commercial fish industries. In spite of the concern for cormorants, little published research is available that addresses either basic population biology questions or management issues. Based on a literature review, I recommend that research be conducted in four areas. First, a large-scale banding and marking program should be initiated so that population models can be used to estimate age- and sex-specific survival and fecundity (as has been done for the Shag [P. aristotelis] in Europe). By marking individual birds, survival and movement rates can be estimated between nesting colonies, which will provide information about potential source versus sink colonies. Second, studies of movements during migration and winter are required. Presently, no data are available on habitat use during migration or on the length-of-stay by individual birds. This has important implications to how cormorants interact with other fish and wildlife species over a broad range. Studies of movements during winter with radio-marked birds should indicate whether the 'problem birds' at aquaculture sites are merely a few specialists. Third, limiting factors, such as contaminants and disease, should receive further investigation, especially in light of recent concerns over the outbreak of Newcastle disease. The relationship between contaminant levels and developmental abnormalities in young cormorants in certain areas of the Great Lakes in Canada and the United States remains equivocal. Fourth, further studies are needed to document the economic impacts of cormorants on Channel Catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) and other cultured fishes and to determine ways to reduce predation by fish-eating birds. Mesocosm experiments should be conducted to evaluate how different fish extraction rates affect final productivity of fish. Controlled experiments with different exclusion and scaring devices are needed. With radio-marked birds, it should be determined what the behavioral responses are to the different scaring devises. Also, providing alternative wetland feeding sites in regions of fish farm depredation might alleviate some of the pressure on farmers. Studies with radio-marked birds could evaluate effects of manipulation of 'natural' wetlands on use by birds during the winter period. Finally, any research directed at the Double-crested Cormorant should also evaluate its interactions with other fisheating waterbirds.

Book chapter↗
USGS2010

Puget Sound shorelines and the impacts of armoring: Proceedings of a state of the science workshop, May 2009

The widespread extent and continued construction of seawalls and bulkheads on Puget Sound's beaches has emerged as a significant issue in shoreline management and coastal restoration in the region. Concerns about the impacts of shoreline armoring and managing the potential risks to coastal property are in many ways similar to those in other places, but Puget Sound also poses unique challenges related to its sheltered setting, glacially formed geology, rich estuarine ecology, and historical development pattern. The effects of armoring on shorelines are complex, involving both physical and biological science and requiring consideration of the cumulative impacts of small-scale activities over large scales of space and time. In addition, the issue is controversial, as it often places strongly held private interests in protecting shoreline property against broad public mandates to preserve shorelines for public uses and to protect environmental resources. Communities making difficult decisions about regulating shoreline activities and prioritizing restoration projects need to be informed by the best science available. To address these issues, a scientific workshop was convened in May 2009, specifically to bring local and national experts together to review the state of the science regarding the physical and biological impacts of armoring on sheltered shorelines such as those of Puget Sound.

Washington↗