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USGS · 70006740

Avian botulism: geographic expansion of a historic disease

Louis N. Locke·Milton Friend
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Abstract

Avian botulism is a paralytic, often fatal disease of birds resulting from ingestion of toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Waterfowl die-offs from the botulism are usually caused by type C toxin; sporadic die-offs among fish-eating birds, such as common loons (Gavia immer) and gulls, have been caused by type E toxin.

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Louis N. Locke, Milton Friend. 1989. Avian botulism: geographic expansion of a historic disease. https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/70006740

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