Are agricultural pesticides in surface waters of the central Columbia plateau?
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Geology topics
Research about Washington
Source-linked reports with geographic coverage including Washington.
Rockslide-debris avalanche of May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helens Volcano, Washington
This report provides a detailed picture of the rockslide-debris avalanche of the May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens volcano. It provides a characterization of the deposit, a reinterpretation of the details of the first minutes of the eruption of May 18, and insight into the transport mechanism of the mass movement. Details of the rockslide event, as revealed by eyewitness photographs, are correlated with features of the deposit. The photographs show three slide blocks in the rockslide movement. Slide block I was triggered by a magnitude 5.1 earthquake at 8:32 a.m. Pacific Daylight Time (P.D.T.). An exploding cryptodome burst through slide block II to produce the 'blast surge.' Slide block III consisted of many discrete failures that were carried out in continuing pyroclastic currents generated from the exploding cryptodome. The cryptodome continued to depressurize after slide block III, producing a blast deposit that rests on top of the debris-avalanche deposit. The hummocky 2.5 cubic kilometer debris-avalanche deposit consists of block facies (pieces of the pre-eruption Mount St. Helens transported relatively intact) and matrix facies (a mixture of rocks from the old mountain and cryptodome dacite). Block facies is divided into five lithologic units. Matrix facies was derived from the explosively generated current of slide block III as well as from disaggregation and mixing of debris-avalanche blocks. The mean density of the old cone was measured to be abut 20 percent greater than the mean density of the avalanche deposit. Density in the deposit does not decrease with distance which suggests that debris-avalanche blocks were dilated at the mountain, rather than during transport. Various grain-size parameters that show that clast size converges about a mean with distance suggest mixing during transport. The debris-avalanche flow can be considered a grain flow, where particles -- either debris-avalanche blocks or the clasts within the blocks -- collided and created dispersive stress normal to the movement of material. The dispersive stress preserved the dilation of the material and allowed it to flow.
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Water resources data, Washington, water year 1995
The Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with State, local, and other Federal agencies, obtains a large amount of data pertaining to the water resources of Washington each water year. These data, accumulated during many water years, constitute a valuable data base for developing an improved understanding of the water resources of the State. To make these data readily available to interested parties outside the Geological Survey, the data are published annually in this report series entitled "Water Resources Data Washington."
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Delineation of hydrogeologic units in the lower Dungeness River Basin, Clallam County, Washington
No abstract available.
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Surface-water hydrology and runoff simulations for three basins in Pierce County, Washington
The surface-water hydrology in Clear, Clarks, and Clover Creek Basins in central Pierce County, Washington, is described with a conceptual model of the runoff processes and then simulated with the Hydrological Simulation Program-FORTRAN (HSPF), a continuous, deterministic hydrologic model. The study area is currently undergoing a rapid conversion of rural, undeveloped land to urban and suburban land that often changes the flow characteristics of the streams that drain these lands. The complex interactions of land cover, climate, soils, topography, channel characteristics, and ground- water flow patterns determine the surface-water hydrology of the study area and require a complex numerical model to assess the impact of urbanization on streamflows. The U.S. Geological Survey completed this investigation in cooperation with the Storm Drainage and Surface Water Management Utility within the Pierce County Department of Public Works to describe the important rainfall-runoff processes within the study area and to develop a simulation model to be used as a tool to predict changes in runoff characteristics resulting from changes in land use. The conceptual model, a qualitative representation of the study basins, links the physical characteristics to the runoff process of the study basins. The model incorporates 11 generalizations identified by the investigation, eight of which describe runoff from hillslopes, and three that account for the effects of channel characteristics and ground-water flow patterns on runoff. Stream discharge was measured at 28 sites and precipitation was measured at six sites for 3 years in two overlapping phases during the period of October 1989 through September 1992 to calibrate and validate the simulation model. Comparison of rainfall data from October 1989 through September 1992 shows the data-collection period beginning with 2 wet water years followed by the relatively dry 1992 water year. Runoff was simulated with two basin models-the Clover Creek Basin model and the Clear-Clarks Basin model-by incorporating the generalizations of the conceptual model into the construction of two HSPF numerical models. Initially, the process-related parameters for runoff from glacial-till hillslopes were calibrated with numerical models for three catchment sites and one headwater basin where streamflows were continuously measured and little or no influence from ground water, channel storage, or channel losses affected runoff. At one of the catchments soil moisture was monitored and compared with simulated soil moisture. The values for these parameters were used in the basin models. Basin models were calibrated to the first year of observed streamflow data by adjusting other parameters in the numerical model that simulated channel losses, simulated channel storage in a few of the reaches in the headwaters and in the floodplain of the main stem of Clover Creek, and simulated volume and outflow of the ground-water reservoir representing the regional ground-water aquifers. The models were run for a second year without any adjustments, and simulated results were compared with observed results as a measure of validation of the models. The investigation showed the importance of defining the ground-water flow boundaries and demonstrated a simple method of simulating the influence of the regional ground-water aquifer on streamflows. In the Clover Creek Basin model, ground-water flow boundaries were used to define subbasins containing mostly glacial outwash soils and not containing any surface drainage channels. In the Clear-Clarks Basin model, ground-water flow boundaries outlined a recharge area outside the surface-water boundaries of the basin that was incorporated into the model in order to provide sufficient water to balance simulated ground-water outflows to the creeks. A simulated ground-water reservoir used to represent regional ground-water flow processes successfully provided the proper water balance of inflows and outfl
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Surface-water quality assessment of the Clover Creek basin, Pierce County, Washington, 1991-92
Increasing urbanization in the 67-square-mile Clover Creek Basin has generated interest in the effects of land-use changes on local water quality. To investigate these effects, water-quality and streamflow data were collected from 19 surface-water sites in the basin over a 16-month period from January 1991 through April 1992. These data were used to understand the effects of surficial geology, land-use practices, and wastewater disposal practices on surface-water quality within the basin. The basin was divided into four drainage subbasins with dissimilar hydrogeologic, land-use, and water-quality characteristics. In the Upper Clover Creek subbasin, the high permeability of surficial geologic materials promotes infiltration of precipitation to ground water and thus attenuates the response of streams to rainfall. Significant interaction occurs between surface and ground water in this subbasin, and nitrate concentrations and specific conductance values, similar to those found historically in local ground water, indicate that sources such as subsurface waste-disposal systems and fertilizers are affecting surface- water quality in this area. In the Spanaway subbasin, the presence of Spanaway and Tule Lakes affects water quality, primarily because of the reduced velocity and long residence time of water in the lakes. Reduced water velocity and long residence times (1) cause settling of suspended materials, thereby reducing concentrations of suspended sediment and constituents that are bound to the sediment; (2) promote biological activity, which tends to trap nutrients in the lakes; and (3) allow dispersion to attenuate peaks in discharge and water-quality constituent concentrations. In the North Fork subbasin, the low permeability of surficial geologic materials and areas of intensive land development inhibit infiltration of precipitation and thus promote surface runoff to streams. Surface pathways provide little attenuation of storm runoff and result in rapid increases in stream discharge in response to rainfall. Substantial increases in concentrations of constituents associated with surface wash off, for example, suspended sediment, ammonia, phosphorus, and fecal coliform, also were observed in this subbasin during rainfall. In the Lower Clover Creek subbasin, which is the most downstream subbasin, stream-discharge and water-quality characteristics show the integrated effects of the entire basin. The data show that further characterization of local ground water and discharge from stormwater outfalls entering Clover Creek and its tributaries would be necessary to successfully apply a numerical water-quality model to the basin.
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Age of ground water in basalt aquifers near Spring Creek National Fish Hatchery, Skamania County, Washington
Water samples from four springs and five wells in basalt aquifers near Spring Creek National Fish Hatchery in Skamania County, Washington, were collected and analyzed for selected inorganic ions and stable isotopes. Eight samples were analyzed for carbon-14 (14C), carbon-13 ([3C), and either chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) or tritium. This work was done to estimate the age (residence time, or time elapsed since recharge) of water issuing from springs at the hatchery. If CFCs are present in ground water, the presence of at least a component of modem (post- 1944) water is indicated. CFC-dating suggests that ground water several hundred feet below land surface in the Underwood Heights area noah of the hatchery, including ground water discharging from the hatchery springs, contains modem water. In contrast, CFC-dating suggests that deeper ground water such as that withdrawn from the Hatchery Well may contain little or no modem water. Concentrations of 14C in water can yield 14C-based ground-water ages, termed 14C-model ages. Unadjusted 14C-model ages (14C-model ages unadjusted for carbon mass transfers) for water discharging from the hatchery springs are on the order of several hundred years. Ground-water samples from three wells in the Underwood Heights area yielded 14C-model ages ranging from modem to several hundred years. Unadjusted 14C-model ages for deep ground water pumped by the Hatchery Well indicate an overall age of several thousand years. However, 14C concentrations may be affected by transfers of carbon into and out of solution. The 13C values of the downgradient ground waters ranged from - 16.4 (per mil) to -18.2 per rail, isotopically heavier than expected for ground water that obtains carbon solely from root respiration in a temperate climate and undergoes no subsequent carbon-isotope fractionation or exchange. Such 13C values in the ground water near the hatchery suggest the possibility of carbon mass transfers during the evolution of these waters. Geochemical mass-transfer modeling suggests that carbon dioxide may degas and calcite may dissolve during the evolution of the modeled ground waters, but that degassing of carbon dioxide is the dominant carbon mass transfer in these ground waters. In addition, modeling results also suggest that, although some calcite may dissolve during the evolution of the water produced by the Hatchery Well, and possibly during the evolution of the shallower ground waters, the amount of calcite dissolution is small. Model testing suggests that the quantity of 14C-dead carbon added from calcite dissolution may not be sufficient to greatly affect the 14C-model ages of these ground waters. In other words, the 14C-model ages that were adjusted for various modeled carbon mass transfers are similar to the unadjusted 14C-model ages. A comparison of CFC data with both adjusted and unadjusted 14C data suggests that water discharging at the hatchery springs contains a mixture of modem and old water, where old water is defined as water recharged prior to 1944. The CFC data support a component of modem water, whereas the 14C data suggest a component of old water. Similar results were obtained from a comparison of CFC data with adjusted and unadjusted 14C data for water collected from Well 3. Well 3 is north of the hatchery springs, on a flow path that appears to be parallel to and similar in length to the flow path leading to the hatchery springs. Water from the Hatchery Well, however, may be devoid of modem water and appears to have an overall age on the order of thousands of years.
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Evaluating evapotranspiration for six sites in Benton, Spokane, and Yakima counties, Washington, May 1990 to September 1992
This report evaluates evapotranspiration for six sites in Benton, Spokane, and Yakima Counties, Washington. Three sites were located on the Arid Lands Ecology Reserve in Benton County: one at a full-canopy grassland in Snively Basin (Snively Basin site), one at a sparse-canopy grassland adjacent to two weighing lysimeters (grass lysimeter site), and one at a sagebrush grassland adjacent to two weighing lysimeters (sage lysimeter site). Two sites were located on the Turnbull National Wildlife Refuge in Spokane County: one at a full-canopy grassland in a meadow (Turnbull meadow site), the other a full-canopy grassland near a marsh (Turnbull marsh site). The last site was located in a sagebrush grassland in the Black Rock Valley in Yakima County (Black Rock Valley site). The periods of study at the six sites varied, ranging from 5 months at the Black Rock Valley site to more than 2 years at the Snively Basin, grass lysimeter, and sage lysimeter sites. The periods of study were May 1990 to September 1992 for the Snively Basin, grass lysimeter, and sage lysimeter sites; May 1991 to September 1992 for the Turnbull meadow site; May 1991 to April 1992 for the Turnbull marsh site; and March to September 1992 for the Black Rock Valley site. Evapotranspiration and energy-budget fluxes were estimated for the Snively Basin site, the Turnbull meadow site, and the Black Rock Valley site using the Bowen-ratio and Penman-Monteith methods. Daily evapotranspiration for the Snively Basin site was also estimated using a deep-percolation model for the Columbia Basin. The Bowen-ratio method and weighing lysimeters were used at the grass and sage lysimeter sites. The Penman-Monteith method was used at the Turnbull marsh site. Daily evapotranspiration at the sites ranged from under 0.2 millimeter during very dry or cold periods to over 4\x11millimeters after heavy rainfall or during periods of peak transpiration. At all sites, peak evapotranspiration occurred in spring, coinciding with plant growth, and the lowest evapotranspiration occurred in late summer and winter, coinciding with plant dormancy and extremely hot or cold temperatures. Water budgets for the Snively Basin, grass lysimeter, and sage lysimeter sites were based on estimates of precipitation, evapotranspiration, and surface runoff. Surface runoff was estimated at zero for all sites. For the Snively Basin site, 1991 and 1992 water budgets using Penman-Monteith evapotranspiration estimates agreed within 1 percent of the annual budgets computed using deep-percolation model estimates; daily estimates of evapotranspiration by the two methods varied considerably, however. For the Snively Basin site, 100 percent of the precipitation became ET in 1991, and in 1992, about 91 percent of the precipitation became evapotranspiration. Water budgets based on weighing lysimeter data at the grass and sage lysimeter sites agreed within 1 percent of each other for 1991 and within 5 percent of each other for 1992. For 1991, 10 percent of the precipitation became ET at both lysimeter sites. For 1992, 94 to 98 percent of the precipitation became ET at the grass lysimeter site while 98 to 9 percent of the precipitation became ET at the sage lysimeter site. Though there were uncertainties in the methods used, recharge estimates for the Snively Basin and grass and sage lysimeter sites were of the same order of magnitude. The Penman-Monteith method (which incorporated Bowen-ratio measurements), deep- percolation model, and weighing lysimeters indicated that no recharge to subsurface systems (soil profile, unsaturated zone, and ground water) occurred in 1991 and that, in 1992, recharge to subsurface systems was probably less than 10 percent of the annual precipitation at the Snively Basin and grass and sage lysimeter sites.
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Water, ice, and meteorological measurements at South Cascade Glacier, Washington, 1995 balance year
Winter snow accumulation and summer snow, firn, and ice melt were measured at South Cascade Glacier, Washington to determine the winter and net balances for the 1995 balance year. The 1995 winter balance, averaged over the glacier, was 2.86 meters, and the net balance was -0.69 meter. The winter balance was approximately 0.5 meter greater than the 1977-94 average winter balance. The net balance was approximately 0.3 meter less negative than the 1977-94 average net balance. Runoff was measured from the glacier and an adjacent non-glacierized basin. Air temperature, precipitation, barometric pressure, solar radiation, and wind speed were measured adjacent to the glacier. This report makes these data available to the glaciological and climatological community.
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Range tests on radio tags considered for use in Lower Granite Reservoir, Washington. Annual report 1994
No abstract available
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The geochemical cycling of stable Pb, 210Pb, and 210Po in seasonally anoxic Lake Sammamish, Washington, USA
The geochemical processes controlling the behavior of stable Pb, 210 Pb, and 210 po in seasonally anoxic Lake Sammamish, Washington were identified from water column distributions and box model calculations. Total (sum of dissolved and particulate) inventories of stable Pb, 210 Pb, and 210 Po increased in the whole lake during the latter part of the oxic stage of the lake and were attributed to diffusion from sediments. Large decreases in the total inventories of these elements occurred during the transition from oxic to anoxic conditions, and the lowest inventories were observed during the sulfidic stage of stratification. The cycling of stable Pb and 210 Pb during oxic periods appeared to be linked to Fe cycling while 210 Po cycling was more closely linked to the cycling of Mn. The behavior of stable and radioactive Pb and, possibly, 210 Po during anoxia was influenced by sulfur cycling. Thermodynamic calculations indicated that dissolved Pb concentrations might be controlled by PbS precipitation during anoxia. Flux balance calculations during stratification indicated that atmospheric deposition was the major source of both 210 Pb and 210 Po to the lake and fluvial input was more important for 210 Po than for 210 Pb. 210 Pb and 210 Po supplied by atmospheric deposition were scavenged and removed by sedimentation from the epilimnion. Residence times with respect to scavenging and sedimentation in the epilimnion were 1–3 and 617 days, respectively, for 210 Pb and 9–22 and 9–26 days for 210 Po. Model results in the hypolimnion indicated that at certain times the radionuclides diffused out of the sediments and at other times into the sediments. Residence times with respect to sedimentation of particulate nuclides in the hypolimnion were 2–124 days for 210 Pb and 8–48 days for 210 Po. The behavior of 210 Pb and 210 Po in Lake Sammamish was compared to that in B~' kford Reservoir, Massachusetts. Although the comparison indicated similarities (e.g., links to Fe and Mn cycling, larger scavenging rates for 210 Pb than for 210 Po), the major differences between the systems were that atmospheric inputs were greater than fluvial inputs, activities of the radionuclides were lower, and the presence of sulfide in the hypolimnion during anoxia affected the cycling of stable Pb, 210 Pb, and 210 Po in Lake Sammamish.
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Inclusions in Mount St. Helens dacite erupted from 1980 through 1983
Inclusions of plutonic, metavolcanic and volcanic rocks are abundant in dacite pumice and lava from the 1980–1986 eruption sequence at Mount St. Helens. Point counts of inclusions exposed in talus blocks from the dome from 1980 through 1983 show that inclusions form approximately 3.5 vol% of the lava. Eighty-five percent of the inclusions are medium-grained gabbros with an average diameter of 6 cm. Additional rock types include quartz diorite, hornfelsic basalt, dacite, andesite and vein quartz. Disaggregated inclusions are common and define shear planes within the dome. These fragmented inclusions may significantly contaminate analyses of the dacite. The gabbroic inclusions are of four distinct types, all with mineral assemblages consistent with crystallization pressures of less than 9 kb. Textures and major-element compositions indicate that most of the gabbroic inclusions are cumulates. The most abundant inclusion type is laminated gabbronorite, which contains up to 9% interstitial glass, derived from partial melting. The presence of quartz veins and hornblende-bearing veins within sheared zones in the laminated gabbronorite indicates that the source of these inclusions was holocrystalline rock that had been penetrated by water-rich fluids. The gabbronorite contained sufficient water to be susceptible to partial melting when the magma that fed the 1980–1986 eruption sequence was emplaced nearby. Various types of gabbroic inclusions, including the laminated gabbronorite, are common in Mount St. Helens lavas of approximately the last 3000 years. This coincides with the interval in which Mount St. Helens first erupted basalt and basaltic andesite lavas. These observations, together with the fact that the gabbroic inclusions are compositionally unlike any of the Tertiary intrusive rocks in the Mount St. Helens area, strongly suggest that the inclusions are related to the introduction of basalt to the Mount St. Helens magmatic system. The source of the gabbros could be a layered mafic pluton formed through crystal accumulation from multiple batches of basaltic magma emplaced at mid-to upper-crustal depths beneath the volcano. The prevalence of explosive eruptions at Mount St. Helens may play a part in bringing the inclusions to the surface. The eruptive products of the cataclysmic eruption of May 18,1980 contain notably fewer inclusions than the pyroclastic flows and dome lavas erupted subsequently. This suggests that the May 18 eruption shattered conduit wall rock that was subsequently stoped into the magma and carried to the surface later in the eruption series.
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The relationship of habitat characteristics to the distribution of chironomidae (Diptera) as measured by pupal exuviae collections in a large river system
Floating chironomid pupal exuviae were collected throughout the Yakima River (Washington, USA) and tributaries in 1989 and 1990. All samples were taken during the October-November low-flow season and most sites were visited once with a sampling effort of approximately 10 minutes. Sampled stream segments ranged from 3rd to 7th order and elevation ranged from 140–1200 m. The total number of taxa distinguished in 77 samples was 150 with a mean of 24 per site. Species richness was not highly correlated with stream order or elevation. An ecological gradient defined by ordinating the taxa by site data was highly correlated with site elevation (r=.93). Comparison with published attributes of chironomid genera suggested that temperature regime was a dominant environmental variable controlling chironomid distribution in this basin. However, since most measured habitat variables were associated with altitude, their effects could not be separated. Cluster analysis of taxa by site data resulted in groupings that distinguished montane from valley sites and agricultural drains from other valley sites. Differences in species composition between moderately enriched agricultural drains and less-impacted sites were minor compared with the underlying elevation gradient.
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Critical thermal maxima of coho salmon ( Oncorhynchus kisutch ) fry under field and laboratory acclimation regimes
Juvenile coho salmon ( Oncorhynchus kisutch ) from three populations in Washington State were captured in the field and tested for critical thermal maximum (CTM). Tolerances varied among the populations (mean CTMs were 28.21, 29.13, and 29.23 °C) and exceeded published data from some laboratory tests. The population from a relatively cool stream had a lower CTM than the two populations from warmer streams. However, after the salmon had been in the laboratory for 3 months under constant, common temperature regimes, the CTMs no longer differed, indicating that the population-specific differences resulted from different acclimation regimes rather than from genetic adaptation.
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Ribbon Cliff landslide Washington, and the earthquake of 14 December 1872
Estimates of the epicentral location and maximum intensity of the earthquake of 14 December 1872, the largest and oldest historic earthquake documented in the Pacific Northwest, are controversial largely because the estimates are based on ground effects. The Ribbon Cliff landslide is one of the more critical ground effects used to argue that the epicenter was in the vicinity of Lake Chelan in central Washington. Sketchy historical accounts link the Ribbon Cliff landslide to the 1872 earthquake, but a subsequent study disputed the historical accounts and, on the basis of dendrochronology, concluded that the landslide occurred more than 100 yr prior to the earthquake. However, Quaternary stratigraphic relations and the results of multiple dating techniques reported here indicate that the main Ribbon Cliff landslide probably occurred within a 14-yr period that includes the time of the 1872 earthquake. Although our study supports the historical accounts that link the landslide to the December 1872 earthquake, it does not prove that seismic shaking triggered the landslide.
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Climate, geography, and tree establishment in subalpine meadows of the Olympic Mountains, Washington, USA
Noticeable changes in vegetation distribution have occurred in the Pacific Northwest during the last century as trees have established in some subalpine meadows. To study the relationship of this process to climate, recently established trees were aged in six subalpine meadows in the Olympic Mountains, Washington. The sites represent three points along a steep precipitation gradient. Subalpine fir ( Abies lasiocarpa ) has been establishing at the dry end of the gradient, mountain hemlock ( Tsuga mertensiana ) at the wet end, and both species in the center. Establishment patterns were compared with deviations from the century-long average for these weather variables: winter precipitation, Palmer Drought Severity Index, and winter, October, and May temperatures. Results show that establishment occurred in dry areas when weather conditions were wetter than average, and in wet areas under drier than average conditions. Establishment at central sites did not show consistent relationships with climate. If future climatic conditions continue to warm, establishment of subalpine fir in subalpine meadows in dry areas may cease and mountain hemlock may resume in wet areas.
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