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At least 1,063 records · Page 59Linked to original sources
USGS2003

Habitat segregation of Ambystoma gracile and Ambystoma macrodactylum in mountain ponds, Mount Rainer National Park, Washington, USA

Ambystoma gracile (Baird) and Ambystoma macrodactylum Baird are common salamander species occupying key trophic positions in mountain ponds and lakes of Mount Rainier National Park (MORA). Based on amphibian surveys conducted in ponds and lakes in the northeast quadrant of MORA during the summers of 1993a??1995, 20 sites were resampled in 1996 to document and evaluate distributions of the two species relative to site habitat characteristics. Distributions of larvae were assessed either by nearshore snorkel or visual encounter surveys of each study site. Twelve environmental variables representing pond and lake physical characteristics, water quality, and nutrient concentrations were measured. The occurrences at each site of three major habitat components (i.e., pond bottom firmness, coarse woody debris, and emergent/aquatic vegetation) were qualitatively estimated. Allotopic distributions of larval populations of both species were related to site elevation, maximum depth, organic content of bottom substrates, and surface area. Ambystoma gracile sites were larger, deeper, lower in elevation, had flocculent sediment higher in organic content, abundant coarse woody debris, and limited emergent/aquatic vegetation relative to A. macrodactylum sites. Ambystoma macrodactylum sites were smaller, shallower, higher in elevation, had firm sediments low in organic content, and had a greater occurrence of emergent/aquatic vegetation than did A. gracile sites. Two sites supported syntopic populations and exhibited many of the habitat characteristics observed at sites inhabited by each species. The distribution of each species in MORA was related to the interconnection between habitat characteristics of ponds and lakes and species life-history patterns and possibly interspecific interactions.

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USGS2003

Amplification of seismic waves by the Seattle basin, Washington state

Recordings of the 1999 M w 7.6 Chi-Chi (Taiwan) earthquake, two local earthquakes, and five blasts show seismic-wave amplification over a large sedimentary basin in the U.S. Pacific Northwest. For weak ground motions from the Chi-Chi earthquake, the Seattle basin amplified 0.2- to 0.8-Hz waves by factors of 8 to 16 relative to bedrock sites west of the basin. The amplification and peak frequency change during the Chi-Chi coda: the initial S -wave arrivals (0–30 sec) had maximum amplifications of 12 at 0.5–0.8 Hz, whereas later arrivals (35–65 sec) reached amplifications of 16 at 0.3–0.5 Hz. Analysis of local events in the 1.0- to 10.0-Hz frequency range show fourfold amplifications for 1.0-Hz weak ground motion over the Seattle basin. Amplifications decrease as frequencies increase above 1.0 Hz, with frequencies above 7 Hz showing lower amplitudes over the basin than at bedrock sites. Modeling shows that resonance in low-impedance deposits forming the upper 550 m of the basin beneath our profile could cause most of the observed amplification, and the larger amplification at later arrival times suggests surface waves also play a substantial role. These results emphasize the importance of shallow deposits in determining ground motions over large basins.

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USGS2003

Comparison of helicopter and ground surveys for North American elk Cervus elaphus and mule deer Odocoileus hemionus population composition

Both ground and helicopter surveys are commonly used to collect sex and age composition data for ungulates. Little attention has been paid, however, to whether data collected by each technique are similar. We compared helicopter and ground composition data for both elk Cervus elaphus and mule deer Odocoileus hemionus across a variety of habitats in the state of Washington, USA. We found that ground and helicopter counts differed (P's < 0.002) consistently in male age structure estimates for elk, and that the two survey methods differed in estimates of adult sex ratios for mule deer (P = 0.023). Counts from helicopters provided larger sample sizes, tended to be more consistent annually in their results, and were corroborated by other demographic studies of the test populations. We conclude that helicopter and ground surveys differ for male age structure and perhaps male:female ratios, but are similar for young:female ratios. Managers should maintain a standardized technique using the same survey vehicle for trend analysis of composition data.

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USGS2003

Field guide to hydrothermal alteration in the White River altered area and in the Osceola Mudflow, Washington

The Cenozoic Cascades arcs of southwestern Washington are the product of long-lived, but discontinuous, magmatism beginning in the Eocene and continuing to the present (for example, Christiansen and Yeats, 1992). This magmatism is the result of subduction of oceanic crust beneath the North American continent. The magmatic rocks are divided into two subparallel, north-trending continental-margin arcs, the Eocene to Pliocene Western Cascades, and the Quaternary High Cascades, which overlies, and is east of, the Western Cascades. Both arcs are calc-alkaline and are characterized by voluminous mafic lava flows (mostly basalt to basaltic andesite compositions) and scattered large stratovolcanoes of mafic andesite to dacite compositions. Silicic volcanism is relatively uncommon. Quartz diorite to granite plutons are exposed in more deeply eroded parts of the Western Cascades Arc (for example, Mount Rainier area and just north of Mt. St. Helens). Hydrothermal alteration is widespread in both Tertiary and Quaternary igneous rocks of the Cascades arcs. Most alteration in the Tertiary Western Cascades Arc resulted from hydrothermal systems associated with small plutons, some of which formed porphyry copper and related deposits, including copper-rich breccia pipes, polymetallic veins, and epithermal gold-silver deposits. Hydrothermal alteration also is present on many Quaternary stratovolcanoes of the High Cascades Arc. On some High Cascades volcanoes, this alteration resulted in severely weakened volcanic edifices that were susceptible to failure and catastrophic landslides. Most notable is the sector collapse of the northeast side of Mount Rainier that occurred about 5,600 yr. B.P. This collapse resulted in formation of the clay-rich Osceola Mudflow that traveled 120 km down valley from Mount Rainier to Puget Sound covering more than 200 km2. This field trip examines several styles and features of hydrothermal alteration related to Cenozoic magmatism in the Cascades arcs. The morning of the trip will examine the White River altered area, which includes high-level alteration related to a large, early Miocene magmatic-hydrothermal system exposed about 10 km east of Enumclaw, Washington. Here, vuggy silica alteration is being quarried for silica and advanced argillic alteration has been prospected for alunite. Clay-filled fractures and sulfide-rich, fine-grained sedimentary rocks of hydrothermal origin locally are enriched in precious metals. Many hydrothermal features common in high-sulfidation gold-silver deposits and in advanced argillic alteration zones overlying porphyry copper deposits (for example, Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; Hedenquist and others, 2000; Sillitoe, 2000) are exposed, although no economic base or precious metal mineralized rock has been discovered to date. The afternoon will be spent examining two exposures of the Osceola Mudflow along the White River. The Osceola Mudflow contains abundant clasts of altered Quaternary rocks from Mount Rainier that show various types of hydrothermal alteration and hydrothermal features. The mudflow matrix contains abundant hydrothermal clay minerals that added cohesiveness to the debris flow and helped allow it to travel much farther down valley than other, noncohesive debris flows from Mount Rainier (Crandell, 1971; Vallance and Scott, 1997). The White River altered area is the subject of ongoing studies by geoscientists from Weyerhaeuser Company and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The generalized descriptions of the geology, geophysics, alteration, and mineralization presented here represent the preliminary results of this study (Ashley and others, 2003). Additional field, geochemical, geochronologic, and geophysical studies are underway. The Osceola Mudflow and other Holocene debris flows from Mount Rainier also are the subject of ongoing studies by the USGS (for example, Breit and others, 2003; John and others, 2003; Plumlee and others, 2003, Sisson and others, 2003; Vallance and others, 2003). Studies of hydrothermal alteration in the Osceola Mudflow are being used to better understand fossil hydrothermal systems on Mount Rainier and potential hazards associated with this alteration.

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USGS2003

Earthquake recordings from the 2002 Seattle Seismic Hazard Investigation of Puget Sound (SHIPS), Washington state

This report describes seismic data obtained during the fourth Seismic Hazard Investigation of Puget Sound (SHIPS) experiment, termed Seattle SHIPS . The experiment was designed to study the influence of the Seattle sedimentary basin on ground shaking during earthquakes. To accomplish this, we deployed seismometers over the basin to record local earthquakes, quarry blasts, and teleseisms during the period of January 26 to May 27, 2002. We plan to analyze the recordings to compute spectral amplitudes at each site, to determine the variability of ground motions over the basin. During the Seattle SHIPS experiment, seismometers were deployed at 87 sites in a 110-km-long east-west line, three north-south lines, and a grid throughout the Seattle urban area (Figure 1). At each of these sites, an L-22, 2-Hz velocity transducer was installed and connected to a REF TEK Digital Acquisition System (DAS), both provided by the Program for Array Seismic Studies of the Continental Lithosphere (PASSCAL) of the Incorporated Research Institutes for Seismology (IRIS). The instruments were installed on January 26 and 27, and were retrieved gradually between April 18 and May 27. All instruments continuously sampled all three components of motion (velocity) at a sample rate of 50 samples/sec. To ensure accurate computations of amplitude, we calibrated the geophones in situ to obtain the instrument responses. In this report, we discuss the acquisition of these data, we describe the processing and merging of these data into 1-hour long traces and into windowed events, we discuss the geophone calibration process and its results, and we display some of the earthquake recordings.

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USGS2003

Debris-flow hazards caused by hydrologic events at Mount Rainier, Washington

At 4393 m, ice-clad Mount Rainier has great potential for debris flows owing to its precipitous slopes and incised steep valleys, the large volume of water stored in its glaciers, and a mantle of loose debris on its slopes. In the past 10,000 years, more than sixty Holocene lahars have occurred at Mount Rainier (Scott et al., 1985), and, in addition more than thirty debris flows not related to volcanism have occurred in historical time (Walder and Driedger, 1984). Lahars at Mount Rainier can be classed in 3 groups according to their genesis: (1) flank collapse of hydrothermally altered, water-saturated rock; (2) eruption-related release of water and loose debris; and (3) hydrologic release of water and debris (Scott et al., 1985). Lahars in the first two categories are commonly voluminous and are generally related to unrest and explosions that occur during eruptive episodes. Lahars in the third category, distinguished here as debris flows, are less voluminous than the others but occur frequently at Mount Rainier, often with little or no warning. Historically at Mount Rainier, glacial outburst floods, torrential rains, and stream capture have caused small- to moderate-size debris flows (Walder and Driedger, 1984). Such debris flows are most likely to occur in drainages that have large glaciers in them. Less commonly, a drainage diversion has triggered a debris flow in an unglaciated drainage basin. For example, the diversion of Kautz Glacier meltwater into Van Trump basin triggered debris flows on the south side of Rainier in August 2001. On the basis of historical accounts, debris flows having hydrologic origins are likely to be unheralded, and have occurred as seldom as once in 8 years and as often as four times per year at Mount Rainier (Walder and Driedger, 1984). Such debris flows are most likely to occur during periods of hot dry weather or during periods of intense rainfall, and therefore must occur during the summer and fall. They are likely to begin at or above the elevations of glacier termini and extend down valley. This report discusses potential hazards from debris flows induced by hydrologic events such as glacial outburst floods and torrential rain at Mount Rainier and the surrounding area bounded by Mount Rainier National Park. The report also shows, in the accompanying hazard-zonation maps, which areas are likely to be at risk from future such debris flows at Mount Rainier. Lahar hazards related to avalanches of altered rock and to the interactions of hot rock and ice during eruptions are discussed in Scott and Vallance (1995) and Hoblitt et al. (1998) and are not addressed in this report.

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USGS2003

Surface-water quality of the Skokomish, Nooksack, and Green-Duwamish rivers and Thornton Creek, Puget Sound Basin, Washington, 1995-98

Streamflow and surface-water-quality data were collected from November 1995 through April 1998 (water years 1996-98) from a surface-water network in the Puget Sound Basin study unit of the U.S. Geological Survey National Water-Quality Assessment program. Water samples collected monthly and during storm runoff events were analyzed for nutrients, major ions, organic carbon, and suspended sediment, and at selected sites, samples were analyzed for pesticides and volatile organic compounds. Eleven sites were established in three major watersheds--two in the Skokomish River Basin, three in the Nooksack River Basin, five in the Green-Duwamish River Basin, and one site in Thornton Creek Basin, a small tributary to Lake Washington. The Skokomish River near Potlatch, Nooksack River at Brennan, and Duwamish River at Tukwila are integrators of mixed land uses with the sampling sites locally influenced by forestry practices, agriculture, and urbanization, respectively. The remaining eight sites are indicators of relatively homogeneous land use/land cover in their basins. The site on the North Fork Skokomish River is an indicator site chosen to measure reference or background conditions in the study unit. In the Nooksack River Basin, the site on Fishtrap Creek is an indicator of agriculture, and the Nooksack River at North Cedarville is an indicator site of forestry practices in the upper watershed. In the Green-Duwamish River Basin, Springbrook Creek is an urban indicator, Big Soos Creek is an indicator of a rapidly developing suburban basin; Newaukum Creek is an indicator of agriculture; and the Green River above Twin Camp Creek is an indicator of forestry practices. Thornton Creek is an indicator of high-density urban residential and commercial development. Conditions during the first 18 months of sampling were dominated by above-normal precipitation. For the Seattle-Tacoma area, water year 1997 was the wettest of the 3 years during the sample-collection period. Nearly 52 inches fell (about 14 inches above average) and monthly precipitation was often 200 percent of normal. The wet years kept streamflows generally above normal and contributed to high concentrations of pesticides, nutrients, suspended sediment, and organic carbon in samples. On the basis of chemical concentrations, dissolved oxygen concentrations, and water temperature, the relative quality of water among the 11 study sites ranged from exceptionally high in the North Fork Skokomish and the Green to fair in Springbrook and Thornton. Water in the large rivers (Skokomish, Nooksack, Green-Duwamish) and in two of the small streams in the Puget Sound Lowlands (Big Soos and Newaukum) was characterized by dilute water chemistry with dissolved solids concentrations less than 130 milligrams per liter. Water in three other small streams in the Lowlands (Fishtrap, Springbrook, and Thornton) had dissolved solids concentrations as high as 320 milligrams per liter. Nutrient and pesticide concentrations mostly were higher in the small streams than in the large rivers. Suspended-sediment concentrations, however, were highest in the large rivers, with averages ranging from 85 to 443 milligrams per liter. During storm and flood events, suspended-sediment concentrations in samples from the Nooksack were as much as 2,800 milligrams per liter, and from the Skokomish, 1,500 milligrams per liter. Out of 86 pesticides and 86 volatile organic compounds analyzed, a total of 35 pesticides and 11 volatile organic compounds were detected at concentrations above laboratory reporting levels in samples collected from the four intensively studied sites, the lower Nooksack River, Duwamish River, Fishtrap Creek, and Thornton Creek. Herbicides were detected more frequently than insecticides. The herbicide prometon was detected in 66 percent of all 124 samples collected, followed by simazine (65 percent), atrazine (64 percent), and the insecticide diazinon (50 percent). The detected volatile organic compounds belonged to one of three general classes--fuel-related, the trihalomethanes, or solvents. Water-quality standards and criteria for drinking water or for the protection of aquatic life were nearly always met, except on occasion by concentrations of dissolved oxygen, iron, and manganese in samples from Springbrook and Fishtrap, and concentrations of diazinon in Thornton and Fishtrap. Concentrations of three other insecticides (carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, and lindane) also did not meet criteria protecting aquatic life in a few samples (from 1 to 5) from Thornton and Fishtrap and from the Duwamish River. Water-quality conditions at the sampling sites resulted from natural characteristics of the watersheds and from human activities. In the Nooksack and Skokomish, natural conditions were probably important contributors to the large suspended-sediment concentrations observed during high streamflow events. However, logging and road building in the basins might also have contributed to the suspended-sediment loads. In the forested study basins, the water chemistry was more dilute, based on dissolved solids and nutrient concentrations. The North Fork Skokomish (indicator site of background conditions) and the Green (indicator site of forestry and natural conditions) were characterized by high-quality water with low concentrations of dissolved solids, nutrients, and sediment and by standards or criteria that were nearly always met. Unlike the high-quality water at the background and forestry sites, natural conditions appear to have adversely affected the quality of water in Springbrook. High concentrations of iron and manganese and low dissolved-oxygen concentrations were possibly the result of ground-water discharge at this site. Of all the sites, nutrient concentrations were highest in the agricultural streams (Fishtrap and Newaukum) and next highest in the urban streams, indicating that human activities affect the water quality of these streams. Of the three large rivers integrating a mix of land uses, the lower Nooksack, in an agricultural setting, on average had the highest total nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations, followed by the Duwamish in an urban setting, and the Skokomish in a forestry-practices setting. In both urban and agricultural settings, pesticides affected water quality at the four sites sampled for organic compounds. However, more types of pesticides were found at the agricultural sites than at the urban sites. The most pesticides were detected in Fishtrap. Many of these were pesticides applied for agricultural purposes, but several were pesticides applied in urban settings, such as those used in maintaining rights-of-way. In urban Thornton Creek, however, high application rates and retail availability of pesticides likely resulted in generally higher concentrations, the detections of certain pesticides in many samples year round, and the number of times insecticide concentrations did not meet chronic criteria for the protection of freshwater aquatic life. The two sites located in urban areas also had more detections of volatile organic compounds and at a higher detection frequency than the two sites in agricultural areas. The most compounds were detected in Thornton, and in the highest concentrations. Conversely, the least number of compounds was detected in the lower Nooksack, with only 2 percent urban land upstream. Methyl tert -butyl ether, an automotive fuel additive, was detected in a few samples from Fishtrap. Many solvents, such as trichloroethene and tetrachloroethene, were detected only in samples from the urban sites on the Duwamish River and Thornton Creek. The only volatile organic compound with a distinctly agricultural signature was 1,2-dichloropropane, detected only in Fishtrap Creek samples.

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USGS2003

Characterization of instream hydraulic and riparian habitat conditions and stream temperatures of the Upper White River Basin, Washington, using multispectral imaging systems

Instream hydraulic and riparian habitat conditions and stream temperatures were characterized for selected stream segments in the Upper White River Basin, Washington. An aerial multispectral imaging system used digital cameras to photograph the stream segments across multiple wavelengths to characterize fish habitat and temperature conditions. All imageries were georeferenced. Fish habitat features were photographed at a resolution of 0.5 meter and temperature imageries were photographed at a 1.0-meter resolution. The digital multispectral imageries were classified using commercially available software. Aerial photographs were taken on September 21, 1999. Field habitat data were collected from August 23 to October 12, 1999, to evaluate the measurement accuracy and effectiveness of the multispectral imaging in determining the extent of the instream habitat variables. Fish habitat types assessed by this method were the abundance of instream hydraulic features such as pool and riffle habitats, turbulent and non-turbulent habitats, riparian composition, the abundance of large woody debris in the stream and riparian zone, and stream temperatures. Factors such as the abundance of instream woody debris, the location and frequency of pools, and stream temperatures generally are known to have a significant impact on salmon. Instream woody debris creates the habitat complexity necessary to maintain a diverse and healthy salmon population. The abundance of pools is indicative of a stream's ability to support fish and other aquatic organisms. Changes in water temperature can affect aquatic organisms by altering metabolic rates and oxygen requirements, altering their sensitivity to toxic materials and affecting their ability to avoid predators. The specific objectives of this project were to evaluate the use of an aerial multispectral imaging system to accurately identify instream hydraulic features and surface-water temperatures in the Upper White River Basin, to use the multispectral system to help establish baseline instream/riparian habitat conditions in the study area, and to qualitatively assess the imaging system for possible use in other Puget Sound rivers. For the most part, all multispectral imagery-based estimates of total instream riffle and pool area were less than field measurements. The imagery-based estimates for riffle habitat area ranged from 35.5 to 83.3 percent less than field measurements. Pool habitat estimates ranged from 139.3 percent greater than field measurements to 94.0 percent less than field measurements. Multispectral imagery-based estimates of turbulent habitat conditions ranged from 9.3 percent greater than field measurements to 81.6 percent less than field measurements. Multispectral imagery-based estimates of non-turbulent habitat conditions ranged from 27.7 to 74.1 percent less than field measurements. The absolute average percentage of difference between field and imagery-based habitat type areas was less for the turbulent and non-turbulent habitat type categories than for pools and riffles. The estimate of woody debris by multispectral imaging was substantially different than field measurements; percentage of differences ranged from +373.1 to -100 percent. Although the total area of riffles, pools, and turbulent and non-turbulent habitat types measured in the field were all substantially higher than those estimated from the multispectral imagery, the percentage of composition of each habitat type was not substantially different between the imagery-based estimates and field measurements.

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USGS2003

Concentrations and loads of suspended sediment and nutrients in surface water of the Yakima River basin, Washington, 1999-2000 [electronic resource] : with an analysis of trends in concentrations

Spatial and temporal variations in concentrations and loads of suspended sediment and nutrients in surface water of the Yakima River Basin were assessed using data collected during 1999–2000 as part of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program. Samples were collected at 34 sites located throughout the Basin in August 1999 using a Lagrangian sampling design, and also were collected weekly and monthly from May 1999 through January 2000 at three of the sites. Nutrient and sediment data collected at various time intervals from 1973 through 2001 by the USGS, Bureau of Reclamation, Washington State Department of Ecology, and Roza-Sunnyside Board of Joint Control were used to assess trends in concentrations. During irrigation season (mid-March to mid-October), concentrations of suspended sediment and nutrients in the Yakima River increase as relatively pristine water from the forested headwaters moves downstream and mixes with discharges from streams, agricultural drains, and wastewater treatment plants. Concentrations of nutrients also depend partly on the proportions of mixing between river water and discharges: in years of ample water supply in headwater reservoirs, more water is released during irrigation season and there is more dilution of nutrients discharged to the river downstream. For example, streamflow from river mile (RM) 103.7 to RM 72 in August 1999 exceeded streamflow in July 1988 by a factor of almost 2.5, but loads of total nitrogen and phosphorus discharged to the reach from streams, drains, and wastewater treatment plants were only 1.2 and 1.1 times larger. In years of ample water supply, canal water, which is diverted from either the Yakima or Naches River, makes up more of the flow in drains and streams carrying agricultural return flows. The canal water dilutes nutrients (especially nitrate) transported to the drains and streams in runoff from fields and in discharges from subsurface field drains and the shallow ground-water system. The average concentration of total nitrogen in drains and streams discharging to the Yakima River from RM 103.7 to RM 72 in August 1999 was 2.63 mg/L, and in July 1988 was 3.16 mg/L; average concentrations of total phosphorus were 0.20 and 0.26 mg/L. After irrigation season, streamflow in agricultural drains decreases because irrigation water is no longer diverted from the Yakima and Naches Rivers. As a result, concentrations of total nitrogen in drains increase because nitrate, which constitutes much of total nitrogen, continues to enter the drains from subsurface drains and shallow ground water. Concentrations of total phosphorus and suspended sediment often decrease, because they are transported to the drains in runoff of irrigation water from fields. In Granger Drain, concentrations of total nitrogen ranged from 2-4 mg/L during irrigation season and increased to about 6 mg/L after irrigation season, and concentrations of total phosphorus, as high as 1 mg/L, decreased to about 0.2 mg/L. In calendar year 1999, Moxee Drain transported an average of 28,000 lb/d (pounds per day) of suspended sediment, 380 lb/d of total nitrogen, and 46 lb/d of total phosphorus to the Yakima River. These loads were about half the average loads transported by Granger Drain during the same period. Average streamflows were similar for the two drains, so the difference in loads was due to differences in constituent concentrations: those in Moxee Drain were about 40-60 percent less than those in Granger Drain. Loads of suspended sediment and total phosphorus in Moxee and Granger Drains were nearly four times higher during irrigation season than during the non-irrigation season because with increased flow during irrigation season, concentrations of suspended sediment and total phosphorus are usually higher. Loads of nitrate in the drains were about the same in both seasons because nitrate concentrations are higher during the non-irrigation season. Loads of nutrients in the Yakima River at Kiona were similar during irrigation and non-irrigation season, generally differing by less than 20 percent. This is because average streamflows and concentrations of nutrients were similar between the two seasons. Average streamflow during the irrigation season was within about 6 percent of the average streamflow during the non-irrigation season and average nutrient concentrations differed by less than 13 percent. Loads of suspended sediment were about 60 percent larger during irrigation season. Large fractions of the total annual loads were transported during the first half of the irrigation season. For example, 38 percent or more of the annual loads of suspended sediment, total nitrogen, ammonia-plus-organic nitrogen, total phosphorus, and orthophosphate were transported from March through June. Departure from relations between average daily loads and annual mean streamflow suggests some reduction in loads of suspended sediment, ammonia-plus-organic nitrogen, and total nitrogen in the Yakima River at Kiona in water years 1999 and 2000. The relation between loads and streamflow was established using loads previously estimated for water years 1974, 1977, 1980, 1988, and 1989 and loads estimated by this study for other water years from 1974 through 1994. The summary of trend statistics for concentration data collected from 1991–2000 indicates that some of the factors affecting constituent transport to surface water may be common to many agricultural subbasins in the Yakima Basin. For example, concentrations of nitrate and total nitrogen increased in five of six streams and drains while concentrations of suspended solids and total phosphorus either did not change or decreased. This difference is consistent with no change, or a decrease, in amounts of suspended solids and phosphorus transported to surface water in runoff and an increase in the amount of nitrate transported to streams and drains from ground-water discharges and subsurface drains. Decreased transport of sediment and associated phosphorus to streams and drains likely results from increased use of agricultural best management practices that reduce runoff from cropland. Nitrate is less affected because much of it enters from subsurface drains and shallow ground water. Increasing concentrations of nitrate in some drains over the period 1991–2000 suggest that concentrations of nitrate in ground water are increasing. Data collected from 1997–2001 also indicate a decrease in concentrations in suspended solids and total phosphorus in some drains and streams receiving agricultural return flows. Turbidity has decreased in drains where concentrations of suspended solids have decreased. The data also indicate that concentrations of nitrate in some streams and drains have leveled off and may be decreasing. This observation does not conflict with the trend statistics for 1991–2000, but suggests that a slow increase over a decade may be leveling off. Trend statistics computed using both unadjusted and flow-adjusted data indicate small, but significant, increases in turbidity and concentrations of total phosphorus in the Yakima River at Kiona from 1991 through 2000. There was also an increase in flow-adjusted concentrations of nitrate, which is consistent with increasing concentrations of nitrate in some streams and drains flowing to the Yakima River. Although nitrogen discharged from streams and drains is a large fraction of the nitrogen load in the river, a relation between increasing concentrations of nitrate in streams and drains and increasing concentrations in the Yakima River at Kiona was not established. The trend test using flow-adjusted concentrations showed no trend in the concentration of suspended solids. This seems reasonable because concentrations of suspended solids correlated with streamflow, and higher values of both were observed after 1995.

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USGS2003

Determination of upstream boundary points on southeastern Washington streams and rivers under the requirements of the Shoreline Management Act of 1971

Regulation of the shorelines of the State of Washington, as mandated by the Shoreline Management Act of 1971, requires knowledge of the locations on streams and river reaches where specific regulatory criteria are satisfied. The U.S. Geological Survey conducted a study in 1971 to determine the upstream boundary points of these reaches for many of the State's streams and rivers. Updated upstream boundary points were determined in the current study for all the streams and rivers in southeastern Washington that fall under the jurisdiction of the Shoreline Management Act of 1971. Upstream boundary point locations where the mean annual discharge equals 20 cubic feet per second were determined for 149 streams. In addition, upstream boundary point locations where the mean annual discharge equals 200 cubic feet per second or the drainage area equals 300 square miles were determined for 22 rivers. Boundary point locations were determined by application of multiple-linear-regression equations that relate mean annual discharge to drainage area and mean annual precipitation. Southeastern Washington was divided into five hydrologically distinct regions, and a separate regression equation was developed for each region. The regression equations are based on data for gaging stations with at least 10 years of record. The number of stations in the regression analysis for each of the five regions ranged from 5 to 33. The coefficient of determination, R2, of the regression equations ranged from 0.953 to 0.997. The equation for the Upper Yakima region had the lowest standard error, ranging from -7 to +9 percent for a regression estimate of 20 cubic feet per second. The equation for the Columbia Basin to Palouse region had the highest standard error, ranging from -36 to +55 percent for a regression estimate of 20 cubic feet per second. The approximate error in the location of an upstream boundary point can be calculated using the variables mean annual precipitation of the basin upstream from a boundary point and average basin width in the vicinity of the boundary point. The calculation gives only a rough estimate of the error of the boundary point location, because of the uncertainty in estimating average basin width.

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USGS2003

Water temperature, specific conductance, pH, and dissolved-oxygen concentrations in the lower White River and the Puyallup River estuary, Washington, August-October 2002

The U.S. Geological Survey, Washington State Department of Ecology, and Puyallup Tribe of Indians monitored water temperature, specific conductance, pH, and dissolved-oxygen concentrations in the White River at river miles 4.9 and 1.8 from August until mid-October 2002. Water diverted from the White River upstream from the monitoring sites into Lake Tapps is returned to the river at river mile 3.6 between the two sites. The same characteristics were measured in a cross section of the Puyallup River estuary at river mile 1.5 during high and low tides in September 2002. In late August, maximum daily water temperatures in the White River of 21.1 ° C (degrees Celsius) at river mile 4.9 and 19.6 ° C at river mile 1.8 exceeded the water-quality standard of 18°C at both monitoring sites. In mid-September, maximum daily water temperatures at river mile 4.9 exceeded the standard on 5 days. From August 2-25, water temperatures at both monitoring sites were similar and little or no water was discharged from Lake Tapps to the White River. Increases in water temperature at river mile 1.8 in late September and early October were caused by the mixing of warmer water discharged from Lake Tapps with cooler water in the White River. Specific conductance in the White River usually was lower at river mile 1.8 than at river mile 4.9 because of mixing with water from Lake Tapps, which has a lower specific conductance. Maximum values of pH in the White River at river mile 4.9 often exceeded the upper limit of the water-quality standard, 8.5 pH units, from early September until mid-October, when turbidity decreased. The pH standard was not exceeded at river mile 1.8. Dissolved-oxygen concentrations in the White River were often lower at river mile 1.8 than at river mile 4.9 because of mixing with water discharged from Lake Tapps, which has lower dissolved-oxygen concentrations. The lowest concentration of dissolved oxygen observed was 7.9 mg/L (milligrams per liter) at river mile 1.8. The lower limit allowed by the water-quality standard is 8 mg/L. Concentrations of dissolved oxygen measured in a cross section of the Puyallup River estuary at high tide on September 12, 2002, ranged from 9.9 to 10.2 mg/L in fresh water at the surface and from 8.1 to 8.4 mg/L in salt water near the riverbed. These values were within limits set by Washington State water-quality standards for dissolved oxygen of 8 mg/L in fresh water and 6 mg/L in marine water.

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USGS2003

Hydrogeology of the unconsolidated sediments, water quality, and ground-water/surface-water exchanges in the Methow River Basin, Okanogan County, Washington

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with Okanogan County, investigated the hydrogeology of the unconsolidated sedimentary deposits in the Methow River Basin, the quality of surface and ground waters, and the exchanges between ground water and surface water. Alluvium (Qa) and glaciofluvial sediments (Qga) deposited during the Quaternary period constitute the primary aquifer in the Methow River Basin, which is used as a source of water for domestic and public-water supplies and for maintaining streamflow during seasonal dry periods. The sediments form a nearly continuous unit along the valley bottom from above the Lost River to the confluence of the Methow and Columbia Rivers, covering more than 45 square miles of the basin?s surface. There are no distinct units within the deposit that can be identified across or along the valley except for fragments of a possible lake bed near the town of Twisp. Ground-water levels in the unconsolidated aquifer are highest during the summer and lowest in the winter and early spring. Ground water and surface water, sampled during June and September 2001, generally were of high quality. Only two samples from domestic and municipal wells indicated the possibility of ground-water contamination from nitrate and arsenic concentrations. In both cases, potential contamination was isolated to an individual well. No trends in water quality were apparent when comparing the results of this investigation with previous studies. The flow of water between rivers and aquifers is important for regulating the availability of water resources for in-stream and out-of-stream uses in the Methow River Basin. Ground-water discharge from the unconsolidated aquifer to the Methow River from Lost River to Pateros ranged from an estimated 153,000 acre-ft in water year 2001 to 157,000 acre-ft in water year 2002. In contrast, ground-water discharge to the lower Twisp River from Newby Creek to near Twisp ranged from 4,700 acre-ft in water year 2001 to 9,200 acre-ft in water year 2002. The Methow and Twisp Rivers, among others in the basin, are major sources of recharge for the unconsolidated aquifer, particularly during high-flow periods in May and June. Aquifer recharge by both rivers increased with streamflow in water year 2002 compared to water year 2001 as indicated by daily losses of streamflow. Aquifer recharge by the Methow River from Lost River to Pateros was estimated to be 82,000 acre-ft in water year 2001 and 137,000 acre-ft in water year 2002. Aquifer recharge by the Twisp River from Newby Creek to near Twisp was estimated to be 2,000 acre-ft in water year 2001 and 6,400 acre-ft in water year 2002. Seepage from unlined irrigation canals also recharges the unconsolidated aquifer during the late spring and summer and may contribute as much 38,000 acre-ft annually to aquifer recharge in the basin. Some portion of this ground water returns to rivers as indicated by a seasonal increase in ground-water discharge in the Methow River from Winthrop to Twisp and in the lower Twisp River during late summer and early autumn. Although the increase is likely due primarily to irrigation canal seepage, however, fluvial recharge during the summer also may have contributed to the increase. The increased rate of ground-water discharge decays by January in both reaches.

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USGS2003

Gas bubble disease in resident fish below Grand Coulee Dam: final report of research

Fish kills have occurred in the reservoir below Grand Coulee Dam possibly due to total dissolved gas supersaturation (TDGS), which occurs when water cascades over a dam or waterfall. The highest TDGS below Grand Coulee Dam has occurred after spilling water via the outlet tubes, though TDGS from upstream sources has also been recorded. Exposure to TDGS can cause gas bubble disease in aquatic organisms. This disease, analogous to ‘the bends’ in human divers, can range from mild to fatal depending on the level of supersaturation, species, life cycle stage, condition of the fish, fish depth, and the water temperature. The USGS, Western Fisheries Research Center’s Columbia River Research Laboratory conducted field and laboratory experiments to determine the relative risks of TDGS to various species of fish in the reservoir below the dam (Rufus Woods Lake). Field work included examination of over 8000 resident fish for signs of gas bubble disease, examination of the annual growth increments of several species relative to ambient TDGS, and recording the in-situ depths and temperatures of several species using miniature recorders surgically implanted in both resident fish and triploid steelhead reared in commercial net pens. Laboratory experiments included bioassays of the progression of signs and mortality of several species at various TDGS levels. The overarching objective of these studies was to provide data to enable sound management decisions regarding the effects of TDGS in the reservoir below Grand Coulee Dam, though the data may also be applicable to other locations.

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USGS2003

Migration behavior of juvenile salmonids and evaluation of a modified flume entrance at Cowitz Falls Dam, Washington, 2001

Historically, the Cowlitz River watershed supported abundant runs of anadromous salmonids. The completion of the surface collection system and fish facility at the Cowlitz Falls Dam presented a unique opportunity to restore anadromous salmonids to the upper Cowlitz River watershed. Collecting smolts at Cowlitz Falls Dam, or before they enter the main body of Riffe Lake, is the key to restoring anadromous fish populations because Mossyrock Dam lacks fish passage facilities. However, after the first two seasons of operation, estimates of fish collection efficiencies (FCEs) based on mark recaptures have been as low as 5% for coho salmon smolts, and at times, up to 76% for steelhead smolts.

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USGS2003

Using 3D acoustic telemetry to assess the response of resident salmonids to strobe lights in Lake Roosevelt, Washington: Chief Joseph Kokanee Enhancement Feasibility Study, 2001-2002 annual report

In 1995, the Chief Joseph Kokanee Enhancement Project was established to mitigate the loss of anadromous fish due to the construction of Chief Joseph and Grand Coulee dams. The objectives of the Chief Joseph Enhancement Project are to determine the status of resident kokanee (Oncorhynchus nerka) populations above Chief Joseph and Grand Coulee dams and to enhance kokanee and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) populations. Studies conducted at Grand Coulee Dam documented substantial entrainment of kokanee through turbines at the third powerhouse.

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