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USGS1983

Hydrology of Area 1, eastern coal province, Pennsylvania [West Branch Susquehanna River, Sinnemahoning Creek, Upper Juniata River, Clearfield Creek]

Provisions of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 recognized a nationwide need for hydrologic information in mined and potentially mined areas. This report is designed to be useful to mine owners, operators, regulatory authorities, citizens groups, and others by presenting information on existing hydrologic conditions and by identifying additional sources of hydrologic information. General hydrologic information is presented in a brief text accompanied by a map, chart, graph, or other illustration for each of a series of water resources-related topics. The summation of the topical discussions provides a description of the hydrology of the area. The Eastern Coal Province has been divided into 24 hydrologic study areas which are shown on the cover of this report. The divisions are based on hydrologic factors, location, and size. Hydrologic units (surface drainage basins) or parts of units are combined to form each study area. Area 1 covers 7,400 square miles of the Eastern Coal Province in part or all of 18 counties in west-central Pennsylvania. The major streams in the area are the West Branch Susquehanna and Juniata Rivers. Area 1 counties produced more than 20,000,000 tons of coal during 1979. About 66,000 acres of disturbed coal land in Area 1 counties are in need of reclamation. Streamflow data have been collected at 146 locations in the area, and water-quality data have been collected at 123 locations. Interpretations of water quality in this report are generally based on a series of four water-quality samples collected at each of 113 locations during the 1979-80 water years. Water-quality data collected at these sites included: specific conductance; dissolved solids; pH; acidity; alkalinty; total and dissolved iron; total and dissolved manganese; sulfate; and bed-material iron, manganese, coal, and organic carbon. Most sites had benthic invertebrate populations sampled and analyses of bed-material constituents. A smaller set of sites was sampled for common constituents and minor elements. Streams in Clearfield and Cambria Counties, the two leading coal producers in the area, had median specific conductances and dissolved-solids concentrations three to five times greater than those from other area counties. Clearfield County streams had the lowest median stream pH in the area. Most streams sampled in the area had acidity in excess of alkalinity. Streams in the three major coal producing counties in the area had median total-iron concentrations two to three times higher than those for other area counties, and the same general pattern was found for total manganese. The median sulfate concentration of a county's streams showed a close positive correlation with the amount of coal mined in the county. Iron and coal concentrations in bed material were higher in coal-producing counties, but manganese concentrations in bed material were not higher. Twenty-eight streams did not have a benthic biological community as defined by the Office of Surface Mining. Three-fourths of the sites with no biological community had levels of pH, acidity, iron, manganese, and sulfate indicative of acid mine drainage. Statistics on low flow, mean flow, peak flow, and flow-duration can be computed from gaging station records for gaged streams. The same statistics can be estimated for ungaged streams through the use of regression or graphical techniques. This information may be useful in preparing and evaluating mine-permit applications. Aquifers in the area receive most recharge from precipitation on outcrop areas. Highest ground-water levels generally occur in spring, decline during the summer, and begin to rise again during the fall. Water levels in valleys generally show less fluctuation than on hills. Median well yields in the area range from 5 to 50 gallons per minute. Ground-water supplies are obtained from more than 40 formations. Ground-water quality is generally suitable for most uses.

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USGS1983

Effect of urbanization on the water resources of Warminster Township, Bucks County, Pennsylvania

Rapid suburban development occurred in Warminster Township and the surrounding area after World War II, resulting in a large population dependent on ground water. In 1980, approximately 2.7 billion gallons of ground water was pumped by public water suppliers and government facilities. Pumping wells can cause drawdown as far as 2,500 feet undip, downdip, or along strike even if the wells do not penetrate the same strata. Pumping wells have lowered base flow; a stream-gain-and-loss study showed that water lost from Little Neshaminy Creek was about 60 percent of the water pumped from wells near the stream. Net ground-water infiltration to sewers was about 830 million gallons in 1979, a wet year, and about 250 million gallons in 1980, a dry year. Estimated water budgets for 1979 and 1980 indicate evapotranspiration can range from 20 to 26 inches per year (1.0 to 1.2 million gallons per day per square mile) and recharge can range from 8 to 18 inches per year (0.4 to 0.9 million gallons per day per square mile). In a year with average precipitation (45 inches or 2.1 million gallons per day per square mile), evapotranspiration is about 24 inches (1.1 million gallons per day per square mile). Ground-water development in the area influenced by pumping is at its practical limit for years of average recharge, but as much as 1.1 million gallons per day of additional water may be obtained by drilling and pumping wells in areas of Warminster Township not affected by pumping. The concentration of most dissolved constituents increased in water from seven wells, sampled at the onset of urbanization in 1953 and 1956 and again in 1979. Ground-water contamination by volatile organic compounds, especially trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene, has made water from some wells unsuitable for public supply. The concentration of lead in 26 samples of ground water ranged from 0 to 55 micrograms per liter, with a median of 17 micrograms per liter; this is above the reported national median and the median in nearby Chester County. High concentrations of sulfate and dissolved solids in ground water are probably caused by restricted gournd-water circulation and may be reduced by long-term pumping, which flushes the aquifer. Effluent from sewage treatment plants has degraded the quality of low streamflow.

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USGS1983

Water-quality assessment of Francis E. Walter Reservoir, Luzerne and Carbon counties, Pennsylvania

Water-quality data, both past and present, show that the waters of the upper Lehigh River basin are somewhat acidic, but otherwise are generally of good quality. This report contains a summary of all known water-quality data collected by the U.S. Geological Survey and other agencies, as well as a synopsis of current water-quality conditions in the reservoir and its tributaries. Water-quality data collected from June 1981 to May 1982 indicate that raising the pool level from 1,300 to approximately 1,392 feet above sea level (NGVD of 1929) has had some significant, if only temporary, detrimental impacts on the reservoir system and its discharge. Depth profile measurements show that, while the impoindment was thermally stratified for only about 2 weeks, the dissolved oxygen concentrations were depressed to levels critical to fishlife throughout much of the reservoir. Another effect of the raised pool was the lowering of pH in the impoinded water. Median pH values were less than 6.0 throughout the reservoir, whereas they commonly exceeded 6.5 at the normal pool elevation. Tests for fecal coliform and fecal streptococcus indicate the impoinded water is nearly free of enteric bacteria. Algal analyses and nutrient concentrations support the premise that the impoundment is nutrient poor and phosphorus limited. Raising the water level an additional 125 feet should have no permanent detrimental effect upon water quality and will greatly increase available habitat for fish and waterflow. Increased retention time should not alter the current trophic status and may decrease the concentration of available nutrients.

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USGS1982

Nuclear magnetic resonance studies of ancient buried wood-II. Observations on the origin of coal from lignite to bituminous coal

Coalified logs ranging in age from Late Pennsylvania to Miocene and in rank from lignite B to bituminous coal were analyzed by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) utilizing the cross-polarization, magic-angle spinning technique, as well as by infrared spectroscopy. The results of this study indicate that at least three major stages of coalification can be observed as wood gradually undergoes transformation to bituminous coal. The first stage involves hydrolysis and loss of cellulose from wood with retention and differential concentration of the resistant lignin. The second stage involves conversion of the lignin residues directly to coalified wood of lignitic rank, during which the oxygen content of intermediate diagenetic products remains constant as the hydrogen content and the carbon content increases. These changes are thought to involve loss of methoxyl groups, water, and C3 side chains from the lignin. In the third major stage of coalification, the coalified wood increases in rank to subbituminous and bituminous coal; during this stage the oxygen content decreases, hydrogen remains constant, and the carbon content increases. These changes are thought to result from loss of soluble humic acids that are rich in oxygen and that are mobilized during compaction and dewatering. Relatively resistant resinous substances are differentially concentrated in the coal during this stage. The hypothesis that humic acids are formed as mobile by-products of the coalification of lignin and function only as vehicles for removal of oxygen represents a dramatic departure from commonly accepted views that they are relatively low-molecular-weight intermediates formed during the degradation of lignin that then condense to form high-molecular-weight coal structures. ?? 1982.

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USGS1982

Heavy metal concentrations in earthworms from soil amended with sewage sludge

Metal concentrations in soil may be elevated considerably when metal‐laden sewage sludge is spread on land. Metals in earthworms ( Lumbricidae ) from agricultural fields amended with sewage sludge and from experimental plots were examined to determine if earthworms are important in transferring metals in soil to wildlife. Earthworms from four sites amended with sludge contained significantly ( P < 0.05) more Cd (12 times), Cu (2.4 times), Zn (2.0 times), and Pb (1.2 times) than did earthworms from control sites, but the concentrations detected varied greatly and depended on the particular sludge application. Generally, Cd and Zn were concentrated by earthworms relative to soil, and Cu, Pb, and Ni were not concentrated. Concentrations of Cd, Zn, Cu, and Pb in earthworms were correlated ( P < 0.05) with those in soil. The ratio of the concentration of metals in earthworms to the concentration of metals in soil tended to be lower in contaminated soil than in clean soil. Concentrations of Cd as high as 100 ppm (dry wt) were detected in earthworms from soil containing only 2 ppm Cd. These concentrations are considered hazardous to wildlife that eat worms. Liming soil decreased Cd concentrations in earthworms slightly ( P < 0.05) but had no discernible effect on concentrations of the other metals studied. High Zn concentrations in soil substantially reduced Cd concentrations in earthworms.

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USGS1982

An evaluation of water-quality monitoring in the Brandywine Creek basin, Pennsylvania, 1973-78

Data recorded from 1973 through 1978 by monitors on West Branch Brandywine Creek at Modena, East Branch Brandywine Creek below Downingtown, and Brandywine Creek at Chadds Ford were analyzed to evaluate the effectiveness of the monitors in describing water-quality conditions. The data show that the stream at Modena and below Downingtown had periods of low dissolved oxygen, and that the stream below Downingtown had a particularly severe dissolved-oxygen deficiency from May through September 1974. The pH at all three sites exceeded 9.0 at times and the pH below Downingtown occasionally dropped below 6.0. The most critical period in the basin was from March to November when pH was most likely to exceed water-quality standards and dissolved oxygen was most likely to fall below the standards. Without the monitors, the extent and magnitude of these problems would not have been detected.

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USGS1982

Disturbed zones: Indicators of deep-seated subsurface faults in the Valley and Ridge and Appalachian structural front of Pennsylvania

Field studies of geologic structures in the Valley and Ridge and adjacent parts of the Appalachian Plateau provinces in Pennsylvania have shown a new type of structure, formerly poorly understood and frequently unmapped, is a significant indicator of deep-seated subsurface faulting. These structures, herein called disturbed zones, are formed by movement between closely spaced pairs of thrust faults. Disturbed zones are characterized at the surface by long, narrow, intensely folded and faulted zones of rocks in a relatively undisturbed stratigraphic sequence. These zones are frequently kilometers to tens of kilometers long and tens to hundreds of meters wide. Although disturbed zones generally occur in sequences of alternating siltstone and shale beds, they can also occur in other lithologies including massively-bedded sandstones and carbonates. Disturbed zones are not only easily recognized in outcrop but their presence can also be inferred on geologic maps by disharmonic fold patterns, which necessitates a detachment between adjacent units that show the disharmony. A number of geologic problems can be clarified by understanding the principles of the sequence of formation and the method of location of disturbed zones, including the interpretation of some published geologic cross sections and maps. The intense folding and faulting which accompanies the formation of a typical disturbed zone produces a region of fracture porosity which, if sealed off from the surface, might well serve as a commercially-exploitable hydrocarbon trap. We believe that the careful mapping of concentrations of disturbed zones can serve as an important exploration method which is much less expensive than speculation seismic lines.

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USGS1982

Johnstown-western Pennsylvania storms and floods of July 19-20, 1977

Widespread thunderstorms associated with two major squall lines, moved across Pennsylvania between the afternoon of July 19 and morning of July 20, 1977. The western part of outflow boundary produced by the second line became almost stationary in western Pennsylvania and resulted in 6 to 9 hours of nearly continuous thunderstorms. More than 6 inches of rain fell over a 400-square-mile area during this period. In the hills just north and east of Johnstown, rainfall totals were as much as 12 inches. Flash flooding was severe as the storms moved slowly southeastward across the Allegheny, Susquehanna, and Potomac River basins. Peak natural runoff rates greater than 1,000 cubic feet per second per square mile were common for streams draining up to 10 square miles. At eight gaging stations, recurrence intervals for the peak discharges were estimated to be 100 years or more. In addition to high surface runoff, some disastrous flooding also resulted from the failure of seven earthfill-gravity-type dams. At least 78 deaths were attributed to the flooding and eight persons were still listed as missing 1 year later. Total damages in the eight-county flood area were extremely high, possibly exceeding $500 million.

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USGS1982

Water resources data, Pennsylvania, water year 1981. Volume 3: Ohio River and St. Lawrence River basins

Water resources data for the 1981 water year for Pennsylvania consist of records of discharge and water quality of streams; elevation and contents of lakes and reservoirs; and water levels of ground-water wells. This volume contains records for water discharge at 86 gaging stations; elevations and contents at 3 lakes and reservoirs; water quality at 35 gaging stations; and water levels at 20 observation wells. Also included are data for 11 crest-stage, 7 low-flow and 322 water-quality partial-record stations. Locations of these sites are shown on figures 4 through 7. Additional water data were collected at various sites not involved in the systematic data-collection program and are published as miscellaneous measurements and analyses. These data together with the data in Volumes 1 and 2 represent that part of the National Water Data System operated by the U.S. Geological Survey and cooperating State, local, and Federal agencies in Pennsylvania.

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USGS1982

Water resources data, Pennsylvania water year 1982. Volume 1: Delaware River basin

Water resources data for the 1982 water year for Pennsylvania consist of records of discharge and water quality of streams; elevation and contents of lakes and reservoirs; and elevation of tides; and water levels of ground-water wells. This volume contains records for water discharge at 66 gaging stations; elevation and contents at 11 lakes and reservoirs; elevation of tides at 1 gaging station; water quality at 33 gaging stations; and water levels at 16 observation wells. Also included are data for 34 crest-stage, 80 low-flow, and 43 water-quality partial-record stations. Locations of these sites are shown on figures 6 through 9. Additional water data were collected at various sites not involved in the systematic data-collection program and are published as miscellaneous measurements and analyses. These data together with the data in Volume 2 and 3 represent that part of the National Water Data System operated by the U.S. Geological Survey and cooperating State, local and Federal agencies in Pennsylvania.

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USGS1982

Sedimentation in the East Branch Mahoning Creek basin, Clearfield and Jefferson Counties, Pennsylvania, June 1979 to June 1980

Parts of the East Branch Mahoning Creek basin, a forested area of 29.6 square miles in west-central Pennsylvania, are disturbed by farming, surface mining, unpaved haul roads, eroding reclaimed areas, and logging. Streamflow was measured and water samples collected at a site upstream from the mouth from June 1979 to June 1980 during base flow and storm periods to evaluate sediment discharges. An additional site on a tributary draining mostly farmland was sampled from December 1979 to June 1980. Samples were analyzed for suspended sediment, turbidity, and specific conductance. Daily mean suspended-sediment concentrations and discharges were computed. From June 1979 to June 1980, 3,570 tons of suspended sediment was transported from the basin. This was an average yield of 121 tons per square mile per year. From December 1979 to June 1980, a tributary draining 2.21 square miles of a predominantly agricultural area discharged 328 tons of sediment which was 12 percent of the sediment load transported from the entire basin. Monthly sediment discharges averaged 298 tons ranged from 32 tons in July to 1,250 tons in March. The highest daily mean suspended-sediment concentration was 712 milligrams per liter on June 8, 1980. On that date, 267 tons of sediment was discharged from the basin.

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