Geology topics

Research about Idaho;Washington

Source-linked reports with geographic coverage including Idaho;Washington.

6 recordsLinked to original sources

USGS2014

Physiological indices of seawater readiness in postspawning steelhead kelts

Management goals to improve the recovery of steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) stocks at risk of extinction include increasing the proportion of postspawning fish that survive and spawn again. To be successful, postspawning steelhead (kelts) migrating downstream to the ocean must prepare physiologically and physically for a seawater transition. We sampled blood, gill filaments, and evaluated the external condition of migrating kelts from an ESA-listed population in the Snake/Columbia River system over two consecutive years to evaluate their physiological readiness for transition to seawater. We chose attributes often considered as measures of preparation for seawater in juveniles, including gill Na + ,K + ATPase activity, plasma electrolytes and hormones to consider factors related to external condition, size and sex. We found kelts in good external condition had plasma profiles similar to downstream-migrating smolts. In addition, we found more than 80% of kelts ranked in good external condition had smolt-like body silvering. We compared measures from migrating kelts with samples obtained from hatchery fish at the time of spawning to confirm that Na + , K + ATPase activity in kelts was significantly elevated over spawning fish. We found significant differences in gill Na + , K + ATPase activity in migrating kelts between the years of sampling, but little indication of influence of fish condition. We conclude that the postspawning steelhead sampled exhibited a suite of behaviours, condition and physiology characteristic of fish prepared for successful transition to a seawater environment.

Idaho;Washington↗

USGS2013

Use of surrogate technologies to estimate suspended sediment in the Clearwater River, Idaho, and Snake River, Washington, 2008-10

Elevated levels of fluvial sediment can reduce the biological productivity of aquatic systems, impair freshwater quality, decrease reservoir storage capacity, and decrease the capacity of hydraulic structures. The need to measure fluvial sediment has led to the development of sediment surrogate technologies, particularly in locations where streamflow alone is not a good estimator of sediment load because of regulated flow, load hysteresis, episodic sediment sources, and non-equilibrium sediment transport. An effective surrogate technology is low maintenance and sturdy over a range of hydrologic conditions, and measured variables can be modeled to estimate suspended-sediment concentration (SSC), load, and duration of elevated levels on a real-time basis. Among the most promising techniques is the measurement of acoustic backscatter strength using acoustic Doppler velocity meters (ADVMs) deployed in rivers. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Walla Walla District, evaluated the use of acoustic backscatter, turbidity, laser diffraction, and streamflow as surrogates for estimating real-time SSC and loads in the Clearwater and Snake Rivers, which adjoin in Lewiston, Idaho, and flow into Lower Granite Reservoir. The study was conducted from May 2008 to September 2010 and is part of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Lower Snake River Programmatic Sediment Management Plan to identify and manage sediment sources in basins draining into lower Snake River reservoirs. Commercially available acoustic instruments have shown great promise in sediment surrogate studies because they require little maintenance and measure profiles of the surrogate parameter across a sampling volume rather than at a single point. The strength of acoustic backscatter theoretically increases as more particles are suspended in the water to reflect the acoustic pulse emitted by the ADVM. ADVMs of different frequencies (0.5, 1.5, and 3 Megahertz) were tested to target various sediment grain sizes. Laser diffraction and turbidity also were tested as surrogate technologies. Models between SSC and surrogate variables were developed using ordinary least-squares regression. Acoustic backscatter using the high frequency ADVM at each site was the best predictor of sediment, explaining 93 and 92 percent of the variability in SSC and matching sediment sample data within +8.6 and +10 percent, on average, at the Clearwater River and Snake River study sites, respectively. Additional surrogate models were developed to estimate sand and fines fractions of suspended sediment based on acoustic backscatter. Acoustic backscatter generally appears to be a better estimator of suspended sediment concentration and load over short (storm event and monthly) and long (annual) time scales than transport curves derived solely from the regression of conventional sediment measurements and streamflow. Changing grain sizes, the presence of organic matter, and aggregation of sediments in the river likely introduce some variability in the model between acoustic backscatter and SSC.

Idaho;Washington↗

USGS2013

Sediment transport in the lower Snake and Clearwater River Basins, Idaho and Washington, 2008–11

Sedimentation is an ongoing maintenance problem for reservoirs, limiting reservoir storage capacity and navigation. Because Lower Granite Reservoir in Washington is the most upstream of the four U.S. Army Corps of Engineers reservoirs on the lower Snake River, it receives and retains the largest amount of sediment. In 2008, in cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the U.S. Geological Survey began a study to quantify sediment transport to Lower Granite Reservoir. Samples of suspended sediment and bedload were collected from streamgaging stations on the Snake River near Anatone, Washington, and the Clearwater River at Spalding, Idaho. Both streamgages were equipped with an acoustic Doppler velocity meter to evaluate the efficacy of acoustic backscatter for estimating suspended-sediment concentrations and transport. In 2009, sediment sampling was extended to 10 additional locations in tributary watersheds to help identify the dominant source areas for sediment delivery to Lower Granite Reservoir. Suspended-sediment samples were collected 9–15 times per year at each location to encompass a range of streamflow conditions and to capture significant hydrologic events such as peak snowmelt runoff and rain-on-snow. Bedload samples were collected at a subset of stations where the stream conditions were conducive for sampling, and when streamflow was sufficiently high for bedload transport. At most sampling locations, the concentration of suspended sediment varied by 3–5 orders of magnitude with concentrations directly correlated to streamflow. The largest median concentrations of suspended sediment (100 and 94 mg/L) were in samples collected from stations on the Palouse River at Hooper, Washington, and the Salmon River at White Bird, Idaho, respectively. The smallest median concentrations were in samples collected from the Selway River near Lowell, Idaho (11 mg/L), the Lochsa River near Lowell, Idaho (11 mg/L), the Clearwater River at Orofino, Idaho (13 mg/L), and the Middle Fork Clearwater River at Kooskia, Idaho (15 mg/L). The largest measured concentrations of suspended sediment (3,300 and 1,400 mg/L) during a rain-on-snow event in January 2011 were from samples collected at the Potlatch River near Spalding, Idaho, and the Palouse River at Hooper, Washington, respectively. Generally, samples collected from agricultural watersheds had a high percentage of silt and clay-sized suspended sediment, whereas samples collected from forested watersheds had a high percentage of sand. During water years 2009–11, Lower Granite Reservoir received about 10 million tons of suspended sediment from the combined loads of the Snake and Clearwater Rivers. The Snake River accounted for about 2.97 million tons per year (about 89 percent) of the total suspended sediment, 1.48 million tons per year (about 90 percent) of the suspended sand, and about 1.52 million tons per year (87 percent) of the suspended silt and clay. Of the suspended sediment transported to Lower Granite Reservoir, the Salmon River accounted for about 51 percent of the total suspended sediment, about 56 percent of the suspended sand, and about 44 percent of the suspended silt and clay. About 6.2 million tons (62 percent) of the sediment contributed to Lower Granite Reservoir during 2009–11 entered during water year 2011, which was characterized by an above average winter snowpack and sustained spring runoff. A comparison of historical data collected from the Snake River near Anatone with data collected during this study indicates that concentrations of total suspended sediment and suspended sand in the Snake River were significantly smaller during water years 1972–79 than during 2008–11. Most of the increased sediment content in the Snake River is attributable to an increase of sand-size material. During 1972–79, sand accounted for an average of 28 percent of the suspended-sediment load; during 2008–11, sand accounted for an average of 48 percent. Historical data from the Clearwater River at Spalding indicates that the concentrations of total suspended sediment collected during 1972–79 were not significantly different from the concentrations measured during this study. However, the suspended-sand concentrations in the Clearwater River were significantly smaller during 1972–79 than during 2008–11. The increase in suspended-sand concentrations in the Snake and Clearwater Rivers are probably attributable to numerous severe forest fires that burned large areas of central Idaho from 1980–2010. Acoustic backscatter from an acoustic Doppler velocity meter proved to be an effective method of estimating suspended-sediment concentration and load for most streamflow conditions in the Snake and Clearwater Rivers. Models based on acoustic backscatter were able to simulate most of the variability in suspended-sediment concentrations in the Clearwater River at Spalding (coefficient of determination [R 2 ]=0.93) and the Snake River near Anatone (R 2 =0.92). Acoustic backscatter seems to be especially effective for estimating suspended-sediment concentration and load over short (monthly and single storm event) and long (annual) time scales when sediment load is highly variable. However, during high streamflow events acoustic surrogate tools may be unable to capture the contribution of suspended sand moving near the bottom of the water column and thus, underestimate the total load of suspended sediment. At the stations where bedload was collected, the particle-size distribution at low streamflows typically was unimodal with sand comprising the dominant particle size. At higher streamflows and during peak bedload discharge, the particle size typically was bimodal and was comprised primarily of sand and coarse gravel. About 55,000 tons of bedload was discharged from the Snake River to Lower Granite Reservoir during water years 2009–11, about 0.62 percent of the total sediment load delivered by the Snake River. About 9,500 tons of bedload was discharged from the Clearwater River to Lower Granite Reservoir during 2009–11, about 0.83 percent of the total sediment load discharged by the Clearwater River during 2009–11.

Idaho;Washington↗

USGS2003

Occurrence and transport of cadmium, lead, and zinc in the Spokane River basin, Idaho and Washington, water years 1999-2001

A water-quality investigation of the Clark Fork-Pend Oreille and Spokane River Basins began in 1997 as part of the U.S. Geological Survey National Water-Quality Assessment Program. As part of the investigation, selected streams in the Spokane River Basin were sampled for trace metals during water years 1999–2001. These data, combined with data collected as part of a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Remedial Investigation/ Feasibility Study, were used to assess the occurrence, loads, and transport of cadmium, lead, and zinc at 21 streamflow-gaging stations in the Spokane River Basin. Concentrations of dissolved and total cadmium, lead, and zinc varied widely both at and among stations. At most stations, dissolved cadmium and zinc composed most of the total concentrations; dissolved lead generally composed less than 10 percent of the total lead concentration. From the South Fork Coeur d’Alene River near Mullan downstream to the South Fork Coeur d’Alene River near Pinehurst, concentrations of trace metals increased 2 to 4 orders of magnitude. The mean flow-weighted concentrations of total cadmium, lead, and zinc near Pinehurst for water years 1999–2001 were 5.7, 80, and 810 micrograms per liter ( µg/L), respectively. On the Coeur d’Alene River near Harrison, downstream from the confluence of the metal-enriched South Fork and the relatively dilute North Fork Coeur d’Alene River, the mean flow-weighted concentrations of total cadmium, lead, and zinc were 1.6, 88, and 240 µg/L, respectively. Trace-metal concentrations were smaller in the Spokane River than in the Coeur d’Alene River because of dilution and retention in Coeur d’Alene Lake. The mean flowweighted concentrations of total cadmium, lead, and zinc in the Spokane River near Post Falls were 0.32, 3.1, and 71 µg/L, respectively. Regression models relating the mass transport, or load, of trace metals to changes in stream discharge and time were successful in simulating the variability in trace-metal concentrations and loads. The median coefficient of determination for the load models for the 21 stations was largest for total lead (92 percent) and smallest for dissolved and total cadmium (82 percent). Whereas most of the cadmium and zinc loads in the Spokane River Basin were derived from the South Fork Coeur d’Alene River, most of the lead load was derived from the Coeur d’Alene River downstream from the confluence of the North and South Forks. Major tributary sources of trace metals to the South Fork Coeur d’Alene River were Canyon Creek, Ninemile Creek, and Government Gulch. These three tributaries contributed about 3,000 pounds of cadmium, 23,000 pounds of lead, and 310,000 pounds of zinc annually to the South Fork Coeur d’Alene River. Erosion and transport of sediment-bound lead in the Coeur d’Alene River was the primary source of total lead, accounting for almost 400,000 pounds annually during water years 1999–2000. Ground-water discharge in the area of the Bunker Hill Superfund site was a major source of zinc in the South Fork Coeur d’Alene River, contributing more than 250,000 pounds per year. During water years 1999–2000, the average annual loads of cadmium, lead, and zinc transported from the Coeur d’Alene, St. Joe, and St. Maries Rivers to Coeur d’Alene Lake were 8,900, 500,000, and 1.4 million pounds, respectively. The Coeur d’Alene River accounted for more than 99 percent of the total load of each of these three metals entering the lake. About 4,600 pounds of cadmium, 44,000 pounds of lead, and 980,000 pounds of zinc were transported from Coeur d’Alene Lake into the Spokane River. Between the Spokane River near Post Falls, Idaho, and the Spokane River at Long Lake, Washington, there was an annual net loss of about 2,600, 20,000, and 250,000 pounds of cadmium, lead, and zinc, respectively. About 2,000 pounds of cadmium, 24,000 pounds of lead, and 730,000 pounds of zinc were transported annually downstream from Long Lake toward the Columbia River.

Idaho;Washington↗

USGS2003

Surface-water/ground-water interaction of the Spokane River and the Spokane Valley/Rathdrum Prairie aquifer, Idaho and Washington

Historical mining in the Coeur d’Alene River Basin of northern Idaho has resulted in elevated concentrations of some trace metals (particularly cadmium, lead, and zinc) in water and sediment of Coeur d’Alene Lake and downstream in the Spokane River in Idaho and Washington. These elevated trace-metal concentrations in the Spokane River have raised concerns about potential contamination of ground water in the underlying Spokane Valley/Rathdrum Prairie aquifer, the primary source of drinking water for the city of Spokane and surrounding areas. A study conducted as part of the U.S. Geological Survey’s National Water-Quality Assessment Program examined the interaction of the river and aquifer using hydrologic and chemical data along a losing reach of the Spokane River. The river and ground water were extensively monitored over a range of hydrologic conditions at a streamflow-gaging station and 25 monitoring wells situated from 40 to 3,500 feet from the river. River stage, ground-water levels, water temperature, and specific conductance were measured hourly to biweekly. Water samples were collected on nearly a monthly basis between 1999 and 2001 from the Spokane River and were collected up to nine times between June 2000 and August 2001 from the monitoring wells. Hydrologic and chemical data indicate that the Spokane River recharges the Spokane Valley/ Rathdrum Prairie aquifer along a 17-mile reach between Post Falls, Idaho, and Spokane, Washington. Ground-water levels in the near-river aquifer (less than 300 feet from the river) indicate variably saturated conditions below the river and a ground-water flow gradient away from the losing reach of the river. Calculated monthly mean losses, during water years 2000 and 2001 along a nearly 7-mile reach between two gages, ranged from near 69 to 810 cubic feet per second. Losses generally increased with increased streamflow. However, late summer warm water temperatures also appear to be a factor as losses increased due to lower viscosity as water temperatures increased. Chemical data indicated that river recharge may influence ground-water chemistry as far as 3,000 feet from the river, but ground water within a few hundred feet of the river is most affected. Major-ion concentrations, stable isotopes, and temperature of the river and ground water from near-river wells were similar and exhibited similar temporal trends, whereas ground water from wells located farther from the river generally had higher major-ion concentrations and more stable temperatures and chemistry. Although trace-element concentrations sometimes exceeded aquatic-life criteria in the water of the Spokane River and were elevated above national median values in the bed sediment, trace-element concentrations of all river and ground-water samples were at levels less than U.S. Environmental Protection Agency drinking-water standards. The Spokane River appears to be a source of cadmium, copper, zinc, and possibly lead in the near-river ground water. Dissolved cadmium, copper, and lead concentrations generally were less than 1 microgram per liter (µg/L) in the river water and ground water. During water year 2001, dissolved zinc concentrations were similar in water from near-river wells (17-71 µg/L) and the river water (22-66 µg/L), but were less than detection levels in wells farther from the river. Arsenic, found to be elevated in ground water in parts of the aquifer, does not appear to have a river source. Although the river does influence the ground-water chemistry in proximity to the river, it does not appear to adversely affect the ground-water quality to a level of human-health concern.

Idaho;Washington↗

USGS1998

Concepts for monitoring water quality in the Spokane River Basin, northern Idaho and eastern Washington

Numerous environmental studies have been conducted in the Spokane River Basin over the past several decades by government agencies, academic institutions, and environmental engineering firms. Most of these efforts have focused on the environmental effects of more than a century of silver, lead, and zinc mining and oreprocessing activities in the South Fork Coeur d'Alene River valley in northern Idaho. Several studies also have assessed the water quality and potential for eutrophication of Coeur d'Alene and Long Lakes and the Coeur d'Alene, St. Joe, and Spokane Rivers. Because past investigations often were limited in scope and employed different approaches and methods, an integrated understanding of hydrologic, water-quality, and aquatic biological conditions still is lacking for the basin as a whole. Substantial resources are being spent for water-quality and naturalresource management, and for mitigating the adverse environmental effects of past mining activities in the basin. A water-quality monitoring network, integrated with the decision-making processes associated with these efforts, could be of considerable value. The purpose of such a monitoring network is to produce high-quality information on which to base sound water-quality and natural-resource management decisions and to assess the effectiveness of those decisions. A streamflow- and water-quality monitoring infrastructure already exists in the Spokane River Basin. This infrastructure consists of 20 lake-stage and streamflow-gaging stations, representing specific drainages or subdrainages and, in many cases, specific stream reaches or subreaches. These gaging stations are operated by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), several of them in cooperation with State and Federal agencies and a private utility company. Extensive streamflow data are available, some dating from the late 1800s. Water-quality data are also available from recent USGS cooperative studies in the Coeur d'Alene Lake watershed. A nutrient load/lake response (eutrophication) model has been developed for Coeur d'Alene Lake. Hydraulic models for estimating streamflow through the low-gradient reaches of the Coeur d'Alene and St. Joe Rivers have been developed. Trace-element concentrations and distributions in sediments in the lower South Fork and main-stem Coeur d'Alene River flood plain and the bed of Coeur d'Alene Lake have been assessed. Trace-element transport models have been developed for the lower Coeur d'Alene River system; estimates of annual load are available from the early 1990's to the present (1998). The USGS is monitoring traceelement concentrations and transport at seven gaging stations in the lower Coeur d'Alene River system and upper Spokane River, in cooperation with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Fish and macroinvertebrate community assessment and tissue contaminant analyses at four Coeur d'Alene and St. Joe River gaging stations will begin in 1998, either as part of the Idaho Surface- Water Quality Ambient Monitoring Network operated by USGS in cooperation with the Idaho Division of Environmental Quality, or for the Northern Rockies Intermontane Basins (NROK) study of the USGS National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program. Several gaging stations in the Spokane River Basin are being considered for routine sampling sites for the NROK NAWQA study. Several other sites also will be sampled for contaminants in bed sediment and fish tissue for the NROK study. Combined with appropriate sampling and data interpretation strategies, the existing USGS gaging-station network and data base could provide integrated water-quality information needed for sound environmental and resource-management decisions throughout the Spokane River Basin.

Idaho;Washington↗