Geology topics

Steven E. Rice

Publications and source records attributed to Steven E. Rice.

6 recordsLinked to original sources

USGS2022

Riparian forest productivity decline initiated by streamflow diversion then amplified by atmospheric drought 40 years later

Riparian trees and their annual growth rings can be used to reconstruct drought histories related to streamflow. Because the death of individual trees reduces competition for survivors, however, tree-ring chronologies based only on surviving trees may underestimate drought impacts. This problem can be addressed by calculating productivity at the stand scale to account for tree mortality and establishment. In the semi-arid Great Basin in the western United States, we calculated riparian wood production from 1946 to 2016 along a stream where most flow has been removed by a diversion pipeline since 1961. The water table was found to be generally below the root zone of cottonwoods ( Populus angustifolia and P. angustifolia × trichocarpa ) in the pipeline-dewatered reach but within it in reference reaches. To reconstruct forest productivity through time, we separately combined measurements of tree-ring basal area increment with either changing forest area from aerial photos or a census of cross-dated living and dead cottonwoods. Both approaches revealed productivity declines in the dewatered reach relative to adjacent reference reaches, and the decline accelerated in the 2000s. Tree-ring narrowing resulted in divergence between the dewatered reach and one reference reach within 5 years after diversion. However, the dewatered reach did not diverge from the other reference reach until 40 years later, when an unprecedented early 2000s atmospheric drought coupled with diversion to cause extensive cottonwood mortality. We conclude that dendrochronological investigations of forest response to environmental stress should incorporate stand dynamics and that the full impacts of flow diversion can be delayed for decades.

Nevada, Utah↗

USGS2021

Borehole analysis, single-well aquifer testing, and water quality for the Burnpit well, Mount Rushmore National Memorial, South Dakota

Mount Rushmore National Memorial (hereafter referred to as “the memorial”), in western South Dakota, is maintained by the National Park Service (NPS) and includes 1,278 acres of land in the east-central part of the Black Hills. An ongoing challenge for NPS managers at the memorial is providing water from sustainable and reliable sources for operations, staff, and the increasing number of visitors. In 2020, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and NPS completed a hydrological study of the Burnpit well (well 5), a 580-foot-deep open hole groundwater well completed in metamorphic (crystalline) rock at the memorial. The purpose of this study was to estimate the geological and hydraulic properties of the aquifer supplying the well and to determine the water quality of the groundwater from the well. The study provides NPS staff and managers background information for assessing future uses for the well. Methods for data collection and analysis for the study included borehole and video camera analysis in 2020, aquifer testing by the NPS in 2009 and the USGS in 2020, and water-quality sampling in 2020. Borehole camera video generally matched the lithology recorded in the well log. Fractures recorded in the well log and observed with the borehole camera, including more than 20 less prominent fractures and rough sidewall areas, indicated a fractured aquifer. The fractures are the primary conduits for groundwater flow through the rock and into the well. Transmissivity was estimated for the upper and lower water-level drawdown zones at the Burnpit well with data from the NPS and USGS using the Theis and Cooper-Jacob methods. Transmissivity for the NPS test using the Theis method was 9.0 and 11 feet squared per day (ft 2 /d) for the upper and lower drawdown zones, respectively. Using the Cooper-Jacob method, the transmissivity was 22 and 14 ft 2 /d for the upper and lower drawdown zones of the aquifer, respectively. Transmissivity estimates from data from the USGS test were similar. The Theis method, applied to the upper and lower drawdown zones of the aquifer, produced transmissivity estimates of 7.7 and 10 ft 2 /d, and the Cooper-Jacob method produced estimates of 9.7 and 12 ft 2 /d, respectively. Storativity (specific yield) estimated using the Theis method for the NPS aquifer-test data was 0.85 and 0.92 for the upper and lower drawdown zones of the aquifer, respectively. The Cooper-Jacob method applied to the NPS aquifer-test data produced storativity estimates of 0.11 and 0.50 for the upper and lower drawdown zones, respectively. The Theis method applied to the USGS aquifer-test data estimated storativity values of 0.77 and 1.0 for the upper and lower drawdown zones, respectively. The Cooper-Jacob method estimated storativity of 0.50 and 0.60 for the upper and lower drawdown zones of the USGS aquifer test, respectively. The estimated storativity values from the NPS and USGS aquifer tests for the upper and lower drawdown zones were higher than expected for limestones and schists. The hypothetical equilibrium drawdown for the Burnpit well was estimated after the NPS test in 2009 at no more, and possibly less, than 35 gallons per minute. The NPS noted that the sustainable yield likely was overestimated because the water level did not stabilize during the NPS aquifer test. The specific capacity for the NPS aquifer test in 2009 was 0.16 gallon per minute per foot ([gal/min]/ft) of drawdown at 3 hours, and the specific capacity for the USGS aquifer test in 2020 was 0.13 (gal/min)/ft of drawdown at 3 hours. The rate of water-level recovery after pumping ceased was 0.017 and 0.013 (gal/min)/ft for the NPS and USGS aquifer tests, respectively. The water-level recovery rate was nearly an order of magnitude less than the specific capacity estimated during pumping, indicating that water levels in the Burnpit well may not recover quickly enough during pumping to provide for a continuous source of water. Water-quality samples were collected at the Burnpit well on June 24 and July 23, 2020, and analyzed for field-measured properties, major ions, metals, nutrients, and perchlorate. Iron, zinc, and lithium concentrations for unfiltered samples in the well were at least three times greater than the mean filtered sample concentrations reported for crystalline aquifers in the Black Hills. Manganese concentrations were less than the mean concentration for crystalline aquifers but exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) secondary drinking-water standards. The iron concentration from the June 24 sample was about 11 times greater than the EPA secondary drinking-water standards and mean concentrations from crystalline aquifers in the Black Hills. Arsenic concentrations in Burnpit well samples collected in 2020 were greater than the EPA primary drinking-water standard and the mean concentration for crystalline aquifers in the Black Hills. Arsenic occurs naturally in the rock of crystalline aquifers, and concentrations from samples in the Black Hills commonly exceed the EPA primary drinking-water standard of 10 micrograms per liter. High concentrations of arsenic, iron, and manganese metals in the Burnpit well make groundwater from the well in its natural state unusable as a drinking-water source, and water treatment would be necessary to reduce the trace element concentrations to less than the EPA primary and secondary drinking-water standards. However, if the memorial has immediate nonpotable water requirements, such as for construction and fire suppression, groundwater from the Burnpit well could provide water without causing additional stress to current (2021) drinking-water sources.

South Dakota↗

USGS2020

Effects of flow diversion on Snake Creek and its riparian cottonwood forest, Great Basin National Park

Snake Creek flows east from the southern Snake Range in Nevada over complex lithology before leaving Great Basin National Park. The river travels over a section of karst limestone where some surface water naturally recharges the groundwater flow system. In 1961 a water diversion pipeline was constructed by downstream water users to transport surface water through the groundwater recharge zone to reduce potential water losses. The diversion pipeline dewaters a 5-km reach for most of the year by transporting water past the recharge zone then returning it to the channel downstream. Snake Creek was incorporated into the newly established Great Basin National Park in 1986, and today park managers and visitors are concerned that the diversion has destabilized Snake Creek’s riparian ecosystem in this arid region where it has high ecological value. The objectives of this study were to 1) document riparian cottonwood forest conditions in the pipeline-dewatered (DW) reach, 2) evaluate Snake Creek water availability and whether it can support a healthy riparian ecosystem, and 3) determine if dewatering has shifted the fluvial system into an unnatural and poorly functioning state. We pursued these ecohydrological study objectives in 11 research investigations of Snake Creek’s DW reach and nearby reference reaches. The research investigations analyzed: 1) riparian forest condition, tree age, growth, and death; 2) tree ring chronologies through time and space; 3) hydroclimatic drivers of tree growth; 4) stable carbon isotopes extracted from tree rings; 5) cottonwood ecophysiology related to water transport and water stress; 6) historical aerial photography; 7) stand-level riparian forest production; 8) groundwater availability as related to surface water and plant rooting zones; 9) near-surface geophysics using electrical resistivity imaging; 10) channel and valley geomorphology; and 11) in-channel wood jams caused by fallen trees. Integrating these diverse research topics provided a full perspective of historical and modern conditions along Snake Creek. We found that modern hydrological conditions in Snake Creek’s DW reach could not maintain the drought-sensitive ecosystem. The riparian cottonwoods ( Populus angustifolia and P. angustifolia x P. trichocarpa ) have experienced significant dieback. Tree mortality was 2.4 times higher in the DW reach than in reference reaches, and surviving trees supported only 60% of the live canopy compared to trees in reference reaches. Changes in the DW reach forest began in the 1960s and became more severe during the last two decades. Stable carbon isotope ratios and branch dieback analyses both demonstrated initial forest adjustments related to water stress beginning in the early 1960s. Tree ring width chronologies indicated two periods of growth decline in the DW relative to control reaches. The first decline in the 1960s represented an immediate adjustment to the modified flow regime, and the second decline in the 2000s demonstrated reduced resilience to atmospheric drought. Aerial photos and stand-level forest production calculations indicated that substantial riparian forest decline occurred in the 1990s–2010s in the DW reach compared to reference reaches. Stable carbon isotope ratios and leaf water potentials revealed that trees in the DW reach experienced greater drought stress than those in reference reaches. Monitoring wells and electrical resistivity surveys both showed riparian water tables to be largely supported by in-channel surface water flow, indicating that the flow diversion removed water that recharges alluvial groundwater and sustains riparian plants. Areas of widespread tree mortality in the DW reach also corresponded to a larger and more unstable channel with a high instream wood load from fallen trees. Modern conditions of Snake Creek in the DW reach robustly suggest that dewatering the river and its associated riparian corridor adversely affected the riparian ecosystem. The degraded condition is likely to persist and intensify unless water is returned to the channel. As we documented during the wet 1980s and the scientific literature suggest, a partial recovery of the riparian ecosystem is likely possible with restored flows.

Nevada↗

USGS2015

Water resources during drought conditions and postfire water quality in the upper Rio Hondo Basin, Lincoln County, New Mexico, 2010-13

Stakeholders and water-resource managers in Lincoln County, New Mexico, have had long-standing concerns over the impact of population growth and groundwater withdrawals. These concerns have been exacerbated in recent years by extreme drought conditions and two major wildfires in the upper Rio Hondo Basin, located in south-central New Mexico. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with Lincoln County, initiated a study in 2006 to assess and characterize water resources in the upper Rio Hondo Basin. Data collected during water years 2010–13 are presented and interpreted in this report. All data presented in this report are described in water years unless stated otherwise. Annual mean streamflow at the Rio Ruidoso at Hollywood, N. Mex., streamflow-gaging station was less than 50 percent of the average streamflow during 2011–13 and was of similar magnitude to annual mean streamflow values measured during the drought of the 1950s. The first zero-streamflow values for the period of record (1954–2013) were recorded at the Rio Ruidoso at Hollywood, N. Mex., streamflow-gaging station on June 27–29, 2013. The lowest annual mean streamflow on record (1969–80; 1988–2013) occurred in 2011 at the Eagle Creek below South Fork near Alto, N. Mex., streamflow-gaging station, with the station recording zero streamflow for approximately 50 percent of the year. Discrete and continuous groundwater-level measurements indicated basinwide water-level declines during drought conditions in 2011–13. The average water-level change among 37 wells in which discrete groundwater-level measurements were collected was -7.6 ft from 2010 to 2013. The largest water-level declines were observed in the upper reaches of the Rio Bonito and Rio Ruidoso watersheds, and smaller declines were observed in the lower reaches of the watersheds. In general, water-level changes observed during 2010–13 were on the order of decadal-scale changes that previously have been observed in the upper Rio Hondo Basin. Stable-isotope data indicate that high-elevation winter precipitation generally contributes more to groundwater recharge than summer rains, except when there are large summer recharge events. This implies that little recharge is occurring at the lower elevations in the upper Rio Hondo Basin because these areas receive a smaller amount of total precipitation, receive a smaller proportion of the annual total falling as winter precipitation, and have higher average temperatures that result in more evaporative losses. Groundwater in the upper Rio Hondo Basin is a mix of younger and older water, and recharge likely is occurring primarily at higher elevations but there may be some areas where localized recharge is occurring at lower elevations. Surface-water- and groundwater-quality results from samples collected in 2012–13 were examined to characterize overall chemistry and were compared to historical waterquality data from streams in the upper Rio Hondo Basin collected during 1926–57. In general, specific conductance showed an increasing trend moving eastward (downstream) through the upper Rio Hondo Basin in surface-water and groundwater samples. Surface-water and groundwater samples appear to have similar overall major-ion chemical characteristics when compared to historical water-quality data. Geology was found to influence the chemical characteristics of surface-water and groundwater samples, with relatively higher concentrations of sulfate occurring in samples collected at lower elevations in the Permian regional aquifer system. Surface-water sample results also were analyzed to determine differences in unfiltered and filtered water-quality samples of streams in burned and unburned watersheds after the occurrence of the Little Bear Fire in June 2012. Samples were collected after postfire monsoon rain events and during periods of stable hydrologic conditions. The first postfire monsoon rain event in July 2012 generally produced the highest measured concentrations of selected fire-related constituents in unfiltered samples collected in the burned watersheds relative to later samples collected in burned watersheds and all samples collected in the unburned watershed. Monsoon rain events have impacted water quality by delivering larger sediment loads and fire-related constituents into streams in the upper Rio Hondo Basin. Changes in climate and increased groundwater and surface-water use are likely to affect the availability of water in the upper Rio Hondo Basin. Increased drought probably will increase the potential for wildfires, which can affect downstream water quality and increase flood potential. Climate-research predicted decreases in winter precipitation may have an adverse effect on the amount of groundwater recharge that occurs in the upper Rio Hondo Basin, given the predominance of winter precipitation recharge as indicated by the stable isotope results. Decreases in surface-water supplies because of persistent drought conditions and reductions in the quality of water because of the effects of wildfire may lead to a larger reliance on groundwater reserves in the upper Rio Hondo Basin. Decreasing water levels because of increasing groundwater withdrawal could reduce base flows in the Rio Bonito and Rio Ruidoso. Well organized and scientifically supported regional water-resources management will be necessary for dealing with the likely scenario of increases in demand coupled with decreases in supply in the upper Rio Hondo Basin.

New Mexico↗

USGS2014

Simulated and measured water levels and estimated water-level changes in the Albuquerque area, central New Mexico, 1950-2012

The City of Albuquerque, the major population center in New Mexico, underwent a more than fivefold population increase between 1950 and 2010. Before 2009, groundwater was the primary source of the City of Albuquerque’s municipal water supply, but since that time, the city has diverted water through the San Juan-Chama Drinking Water Project to augment municipal water supplies. Consequently, there is interest in understanding how groundwater levels changed in response to groundwater pumping, surface-water diversions, and conservation measures. To give a more detailed history of water-level changes from 1950 through 2012, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Albuquerque Bernalillo County Water Utility Authority, created maps showing water-level contours and changes by contouring water-table elevations and production-zone hydraulic heads that were simulated with a recently updated regional-scale transient groundwater-flow model at 10-year intervals from 1950 to 2000 and again for 2008. Both the water-table elevations and production-zone hydraulic heads declined over time with the largest change occurring between 1970 and 1980, which was a period of rapid population growth and groundwater use. Declines in the water-table elevations and production-zone hydraulic heads are focused around major pumping centers and are largest in the production zone. Hydrographs from nine production-zone piezometers in the modeled area indicated varying responses to the increased use of surface-water diversions during 2009–12, with responses related to the locations of the wells within the study area and their proximity to pumping centers and the Rio Grande.

New Mexico↗

USGS2014

Estimates of groundwater recharge rates and sources in the East Mountain area, Eastern Bernalillo County, New Mexico, 2005-12

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Bernalillo County Public Works Division, has conducted a monitoring program in the East Mountain area of eastern Bernalillo County, New Mexico, since 2000 to better define the hydrogeologic characteristics of the East Mountain area and to provide scientific information that will assist in the sustainable management of water resources. This report presents estimates of groundwater recharge to the aquifers that supply water to a network of springs that discharged within the East Mountain area of eastern Bernalillo County during 2005–12. Chloride concentration, the mass ratio of chloride to bromide, and the stable isotope ratios of hydrogen and oxygen were used to estimate annual groundwater recharge rates and to identify the sources and timing of recharge to the aquifers in the East Mountain area. Groundwater recharge rates were estimated by using a chloride mass-balance (CMB) method applied to data from selected springs located in the study area. Eleven springs and four downgradient monitoring wells were sampled for this study. On the basis of chloride concentrations and the mass ratio of chloride to bromide, eight of the eleven sampled springs are considered representative of dilute groundwater recharged by meteoric water in the Sandia Mountains. Eight of the eleven springs sampled as part of this investigation are considered representative of dilute groundwater not influenced by nonmeteoric chloride sources on the basis of analysis of chloride concentrations and the mass ratio of chloride to bromide. Chloride concentrations at three of the sampled springs were likely affected by nonmeteoric chloride sources. Results of CMB calculations for the eight springs with Cl:Br ratios and chloride concentrations within the range of dilute groundwater (not influenced by nonmeteoric chloride sources) indicated that between about 5.5 and 23 percent of annual precipitation recharges the groundwater system. The variation in estimated recharge rates indicated that the mechanisms for recharge and groundwater movement in the East Mountain area are complex and that factors such as climate variability, the extent and interconnection of structural features such as faults and fractures, and potential solution enhancement of the aquifers all play important roles in the rates and timing of recharge. Stable isotope data from springs and snowpacks sampled in the East Mountain area were compared with local, regional, and global meteoric water lines and were analyzed along with values representing the stable isotope composition of winter precipitation and summer monsoonal rains. Results of the stable isotope analysis from springs in this study suggested that winter precipitation is the primary source of groundwater recharge to the aquifers supplying the springs, but there is a component of more isotopically enriched precipitation being recharged as well, likely from summer monsoonal rains. Specific conductance, groundwater-level hydrographs, snowpack chemistry, and snow-water equivalent data were used to inform the analyses and corroborate the findings of the CMB and stable isotope results.

New Mexico↗