Geology topics

Kurt Jenkins

Publications and source records attributed to Kurt Jenkins.

12 recordsLinked to original sources

USGS2024

Establishment of terrestrial mammals on former reservoir beds following large dam removal on the Elwha River, Washington, USA

Terrestrial wildlife species are important yet often overlooked taxa in the recovery of ecosystems following dam removal. Their presence can shape ecosystem recovery, signal restoration of ecosystem function, and influence food web dynamics and nutrient transfer. We used camera traps to examine seasonal use of two former reservoir beds and an upstream reference reach by the mammalian community following the removal of two large dams on the Elwha River, Washington, USA. For certain taxa, we compared current species use to data collected prior to dam removal. Camera traps revealed use by at least fifteen mammal species, including but not limited to American black bear ( Ursus americanus ), Columbian black-tailed deer ( Odocoileus hemionus columbianus ), Roosevelt elk ( Cervus elaphus roosevelti ), puma ( Puma concolor ), coyotes ( Canis latrans ), bobcats ( Lynx rufus ), and snowshoe hares ( Lepus americanus ). Coyotes were found mostly lower in the watershed outside the Olympic National Park boundary, while other species were distributed throughout the restoration area. We did not see major differences in species composition between the restoration areas and the upstream reference reach, though number of detections across study reaches differed for most species. Unlike previous findings, black bears were observed across all seasons in this study, suggesting a shift in seasonal use since dam removal. Full restoration of the terrestrial wildlife community could take decades to unfold, but early patterns demonstrate rapid establishment and use by wildlife on new riparian surfaces that are expected to continue to evolve with restoration of fish and vegetation communities.

Washingotn↗

USGS2022

Post-release survival of translocated fishers: Implications for translocation success

As a vital tool for the conservation of species at risk, translocations are also opportunities to identify factors that influence translocation success. We evaluated factors associated with post-release survival of 90 radio-tracked fishers ( Pekania pennanti ) translocated from central British Columbia, Canada, to the Olympic Peninsula of Washington, USA, from 2008 to 2011. We hypothesized that the survival of translocated fishers would be affected by the same factors that influence the survival of resident, native fishers (i.e., sex, age, season, body condition), and additional factors that were associated with the translocation process (e.g., duration of captivity, release date, yr of release). Fisher survival was most strongly influenced by translocation year (i.e., release-yr cohort), season, sex, and age class of fisher; whereas duration of captivity, standardized body mass, release date, and number of intact canines did not influence survival. Survival was lowest for fishers released in cohort 2 in 2009 and during the breeding season (Mar–Jun), and was greatest for juveniles and males. When combined across release-year cohorts, year 1 survival rates were greatest for juvenile males followed by juvenile females, adult females, and adult males. Sex and age-related differences in survival of translocated fishers were counter to those commonly reported for established fisher populations, where adult females often have the highest survival rates and juveniles the lowest. Predation (40%) and vehicle strikes (20%) were the most common causes of known mortality among the 24 recovered fishers for which cause of death was determined. We speculate that females face higher risks of mortality in translocated populations because their small size makes them more vulnerable to predation and because adult females in resident populations are less likely than males and juveniles to disperse. Our findings support designing translocations that favor releasing a preponderance of female fishers in recognition of their lower survival rates and to ensure adequate breeders are established in the population, and juvenile and young adult fishers to enhance survival of both sexes. Releases conducted over multiple years will minimize the impact of stochastic annual events that may adversely affect survival in any given year. Persistence, widespread distribution, and documented reproduction of fishers within our study area for ≥6 years following the last releases indicate that survival parameters we measured contributed toward successful population establishment over the short term.

Washington↗

USGS2021

Plant community succession following ungulate exclusion in a temperate rainforest

Ecosystem structure and processes of coastal temperate rainforests of the Pacific Northwest are thought to be strongly influenced by herbivory primarily of Roosevelt elk ( Cervus elaphus roosevelti ) and secondarily of Columbian black-tailed deer ( Odocoileus hemionus columbianus ). Two large (0.5-ha) exclosures were built in old-growth coniferous rainforest communities in Olympic National Park, Washington, during 1979 to study these effects. Cover of shrubs, ferns, herbs, and graminoids and numbers of tree seedlings were described over 36 yr. Results show a sequence following ungulate exclusion of early release of shrubs, ferns, and herbs followed by eventual dominance of shrubs as other vegetation layers become shaded. Short-term responses of individual species reflected functional traits related to ability to avoid or tolerate herbivory. Over the longer term, effects reflected changing competitive relationships among vegetation layers and other ecosystem dynamics such as the provision of fallen trees in the appropriate decay class to serve as establishment substrate for tree seedlings. In aggregate, vegetation composition shifted after 36 yr from a system dominated by herbaceous cover with a major graminoid component to one dominated by shrubs (5- to 6-fold absolute increase) and ferns (5–7% increase in absolute cover), less absolute herb cover (15–20% loss), and almost no graminoids (<1.5% cover remaining in any plot) after 36 yr. These changes represented a substantial loss in plant community diversity with a loss of 46 of 74 species. Elk abundance outside of the exclosures began to decline in the 1990s leading to parallel changes in plant community trajectories outside of exclosures to those initially seen inside. While this suggests plant community responses inside the exclosures were also driven by elk exclusion, the strength of this response depends on elk abundance.

Washington↗

USGS2021

Factors influencing the post-release movements of translocated fishers: Implications for translocation success

Long distance, post-release movements of translocated wildlife can be a key factor limiting translocation success. Yet, for many species, we have little or no understanding of factors that influence post-release movements. Translocations have been important for recovering fisher Pekania pennanti populations across the southern portion of their North American range. However, little is known about the post-release movements of translocated fishers and how these movements may be influenced by demographic or translocation-process factors. To restore fishers in Washington State, we moved 90 fishers from central British Columbia and released them at nine sites in the Olympic Fisher Recovery Area on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington from 2008 to 2010. We evaluated post-release movements of 48 fishers to determine both the distance and duration of movements prior to home range establishment. Fishers moved extensively following their release. Multi-model selection indicated a high level of support for the hypothesis that post-release movements differed by fisher sex and age; whereas, year of release had no apparent effect on movements, and release date had only a marginal influence on male movements. Mean distance (± 95% CI) from a release site to a home range was greater for adult males (62.0 ± 19.6 km) than for juvenile males (31.4 ± 16.0 km), adult females (30.9 ± 21.1 km), and juvenile females (29.0 ± 13.5 km). Mean number of days from release until home range establishment was similar for the sexes, however the variance in movement duration was greater for females. Twenty-six of 27 females established home ranges over an 11-month period (December-October), while 19 of 21 males did so within a 4-month period (April-July). Mean home range sizes differed between males (128.3 ± 21.1 km2) and females (63.5 ± 9.0 km2) and were among the largest reported for the species. A greater proportion of females (18 of 27; 67%) than males (8 of 21; 38%) established home ranges within or partially within the recovery area. Six females left a previously established home range during the breeding season, presumably to find breeding males. Given the large distances that fishers can move following release, translocation success could be furthered by releasing individuals at fewer sites in the interior of large reintroduction areas to facilitate greater exposure to a recovery area and greater opportunity to interact with conspecifics and potential mates.

Washington↗

USGS2021

Diet composition of Fishers (Pekania pennanti) reintroduced on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington

Knowledge of diet composition can inform management strategies and efforts to recover endangered carnivore populations in vacant portions of their historic ranges. One such species, the Fisher ( Pekania pennanti ), was extirpated in Washington State prior to any formal documentation of its food habits in the coastal coniferous forests of western Washington. Fisher recovery efforts in Washington, based on translocating Fishers from extant populations, have been ongoing since 2008, beginning with the release of 90 Fishers on Washington's Olympic Peninsula from 2008 to 2010. We collected fecal samples or digestive tracts from 13 Fishers opportunistically on the Olympic Peninsula from 2009 through 2013. Subsequently, we identified the species composition of each sample's contents to determine the primary foods consumed by the reintroduced Fishers. Fisher diets were diverse and dominated by mammalian prey. Contents of feces and digestive tracts of Fishers were composed primarily of Snowshoe Hare ( Lepus americanus ) remains, followed by lesser proportions of Mountain Beavers ( Aplodontia rufa ), Northern Flying Squirrels ( Glaucomys sabrinus ), Douglas Squirrels ( Tamiasciurus douglasii ), Southern Red-backed Voles ( Myodes gapperi ), shrews ( Sorex spp.), and unidentified ungulate species. The diet of Fishers comprised species that occur across a wide range of land uses and management prescriptions, including previously logged forests and mature forests that have been set aside for retention of old-growth forest characteristics. Additional study of prey abundance and Fisher foraging behaviors related to structural habitat characteristics across a gradient of land uses would provide useful insights for enhancing the effectiveness of conservation efforts to benefit Fishers in Pacific Northwest coastal forests.

Washington↗

USGS2021

Elk monitoring in Mount Rainier and Olympic National Parks: 2008-2017 synthesis report

In 2008, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) began collaborating with the National Park Service (NPS)-North Coast and Cascades Network (NCCN), the Muckleshoot Indian Tribe (MIT), Puyallup Tribe of Indians (PTOI), and Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) to develop a standard survey protocol for monitoring long-term changes in the abundance, distribution, and population composition of elk on key summer ranges within Mount Rainier National Park (MORA) and Olympic National Park (OLYM). In MORA, surveys were conducted in two trend count areas (TCAs) that correspond with primary summer ranges used by the North Rainier Herd, which winters outside the park to the North, and the South Rainier Herd, which winters outside the park primarily to the South. In OLYM, we defined five TCAs including an Olympic Core TCA (hereafter, Core TCA) that encompasses summer ranges on the flanks of Mount Olympus, and four TCAs that encompass other primary summer ranges throughout the park. The standard protocol allows for estimating aerial survey detection biases and adjusting raw survey counts to account for elk that were likely present but not seen during surveys. Previously, we developed a suite of aerial-bias-correction models for use in estimating aerial detection biases and adjusting raw counts of elk in MORA based on sighting conditions related to elk group size, vegetation density, lighting conditions, elk movement, as well as combinations of these and other factors. The models were based on independent sighting records of elk groups by front-seat and back-seat observer pairs in a helicopter, including detection records of some radio-collared elk groups. Here, we analyze results of the first 10 years of elk monitoring in MORA (2008-2017) and 8 years in OLYM (2008-2015). In a previous report covering surveys conducted from 2008-2011, data were not sufficient to model detection biases of aerial surveys conducted in OLYM; hence, analyses of elk population trends were based on counts adjusted for detection biases in MORA, whereas trends in OLYM were based on raw, unadjusted counts (Griffin et al. 2013, Jenkins et al. 2015). Our objectives for the current summary were to: (1) incorporate additional data to update aerial-bias-correction models previously developed for use in MORA to include corrections for aerial detection bias in both MORA and OLYM, (2) examine trends in elk abundance, distribution, and population composition estimates for subalpine summer ranges within MORA and OLYM, and (3) estimate effects of seasonal variation and weather on elk abundance and population composition estimates for subalpine summer ranges in both parks.

Washington↗

USGS2020

Vegetation sampling and management

What is the utility of vegetation measurements for wildlife managers? In the prairie, savanna, tundra, forest, steppe, and wetland regions of the world, mixtures of plant species provide wildlife with food, cover and, in some circumstances, water; the 3 essential habitat elements necessary to sustain viable wildlife populations. We define habitat in reference to use of a vegetation type by an animal (e.g., deer habitat) and vegetation type when referring to differences in vegetation stands (e.g., marsh vegetation type versus tall grass prairie vegetation type; Hall et al. 1997). In strict definition, the variety of wildlife using plants ranges from snails and voles (Microtus spp.) to bison (Bison bison) and elephants (Loxodonta spp.) in uplands and from mosquitoes and ducks to muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) and manatees (Trichechus manatus) in wetlands. Through evolutionary processes, some wildlife species are totally dependent on vegetation for all annual life requirements, whereas other species use vegetation only for cover or food. Regardless of the role of vegetation in the sustenance of wildlife, any management or research project that requires evaluation of wildlife and vegetation type relationships on a unit of land will necessitate some form of vegetation measurement. The term vegetation can refer to a single plant or species on a specific site or a community in the landscape. Vegetation may occur naturally or be introduced, and may be live or dead. Uses of vegetation measurements are many: (1) evaluation of vegetation response to management practices, (2) estimation of carrying capacity and/or forage production, (3) characterization of cover and habitat components for an endangered species, or (4) long-term monitoring of the general trend of plant vigor or vegetation type condition. Surveying and measuring quantity and quality of vegetation within habitats are basic to wildlife research and management. Grassland, shrubland, and woodland vegetation types are comprised of populations in which individual plants are usually too numerous to inventory completely. Consequently, wildlife biologists usually use sampling techniques to make inferences about the total plant population within a given vegetation type. Vegetation sampling methodologies have evolved within several ecological disciplines (e.g., plant ecology, forestry, rangeland science) and for a variety of management or research objectives (e.g., estimating forage for ungulates, describing habitat use by passerine birds). Description of every method that has been used to sample vegetation is beyond the scope of this chapter. We describe how to measure vegetation structure, which Dansereau (1957) defined as the spatial organization (distribution) of individuals that form a stand. We have organized this chapter into a description of basic methods of vegetation sampling with examples of how those methods have been applied or modified in wildlife research and management. We assume the investigator/reader has adequate knowledge of the concepts of wildlife ecology, primary habitat requirements of wildlife species under study, and ability to systematically identify the species of wildlife and vascular plants within the geographical area of investigation.

Book chapter↗

USGS2019

Occupancy patterns in a reintroduced fisher population during reestablishment

Monitoring population performance in the years following species reintroductions is key to assessing population restoration success and evaluating assumptions made in planning species restoration programs. From 2008–2010 we translocated 90 fishers ( Pekania pennanti ) from British Columbia, Canada, to Washington's Olympic Peninsula, USA, providing the opportunity to evaluate modeling assumptions used to identify the most suitable reintroduction areas in Washington and enhance understanding of fisher habitat associations in the late‐successional forest ecosystems in the coastal Pacific Northwest. From 2013–2016, we deployed 788 motion‐sensing cameras and hair (DNA)‐snaring devices distributed among 263 24‐km 2 primary sampling units across the Olympic Peninsula. Our objectives were to determine whether occupancy patterns of the reestablishing population supported assumptions of the initial habitat assessment models, whether the population had expanded or shifted in distribution since the initial reintroductions, compare physical habitat attributes among land‐management designations, and determine whether the founding fishers had successfully reproduced. We predicted that site occupancy by fishers would be associated with landscapes characterized by high proportional coverage of dense forest canopies and medium‐sized and large trees, a diversity of stand structural classes, and area near the administrative boundary separating wilderness from more intensively managed forest lands. We detected fishers across designated wilderness, federal lands outside of wilderness, and other land designations in proportion to land availability on the Peninsula. We found negligible support for predictions that occupancy by fishers was associated with percent forest cover, tree‐size class, or structural class diversity. Rather, occupancy was strongly associated with lands near the wilderness boundary on both sides. We speculate that the boundary between wilderness and more intensively managed forest lands provided fishers with the most suitable prey in proximity to contiguous expanses of low‐ to mid‐elevation late‐successional forests that provided optimal resting, denning, and security values. Occupancy patterns shifted toward the west and south along a precipitation gradient during the study, indicating that population distribution had not yet stabilized 5–8 years following translocation. Genetic results indicated that ≥2 generations of fishers have been produced on the Peninsula. Annual occupancy rates across the Peninsula (0.08–0.24) were lower than in other previously studied and established fisher populations, indicating that not all habitat was fully occupied or that initial estimates of the extent of habitat was overestimated. The strong selection fishers exhibited for wilderness edge and weak selection against extensive forested wilderness areas suggested that habitat managers should strive for maintaining a suitable interspersion of required forest structures and biotic habitat components, such as prey resource availability.

Journal of Wildlife Management↗

USGS2012

Lewis and Clark National Historical Park Elk Monitoring Program Annual Report 2010

Fiscal year 2010 was the second full year of elk monitoring protocol implementation at Lewis and Clark National Historical Park (LEWI), part of the North Coast and Cascades Network (NCCN) Inventory and Monitoring program. Elk monitoring at Lewis and Clark NHP includes two components. Fecal pellet surveys at a systematic sample of points in the Fort Clatsop unit are intended to give quantitative estimates of relative use by elk in that unit. Driving surveys on specified routes in and near the Fort Clatsop unit are intended to provide an index of elk viewing opportunities on those roads. Fecal pellet surveys include a fall clearing session and a late winter sampling session. Fall clearing from November 9 to November 17, 2009 included visits to 67 survey points. Late winter sampling from March 1 to March 8 2010 included repeat visits to 65 of those same points, but not to two others that had hazardous access or were under water. We detected elk fecal pellets in 30 points in the fall and at 30 points in the late winter. Three to four road surveys per month were conducted in each of the 12 months of fiscal year 2010 (i.e., October-December 2009 and January-September 2010). Data from those surveys will be entered, validated, certified, and analyzed following the acceptance of the peer-reviewed protocol and associated database. Data from FY09, FY10, and FY11 will be useful in the formal analyses of trend. Those three years of data will contribute to the preparation of a four-year analysis and report after only one more year. Quantitative estimates of relative use by elk throughout the Fort Clatsop unit will be provided in the four-year report in 2012. Those estimates will account for detection bias, which comes from an incomplete count of elk pellets that were present in the subplots at the time of survey.

Oregon↗

USGS2011

Seasonal distribution and aerial surveys of mountain goats in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks, Washington

We described the seasonal distribution of Geographic Positioning System (GPS)-collared mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) in Mount Rainier, North Cascades, and Olympic National Parks to evaluate aerial survey sampling designs and provide general information for park managers. This work complemented a companion study published elsewhere of aerial detection biases of mountain goat surveys in western Washington. Specific objectives reported here were to determine seasonal and altitudinal movements, home range distributions, and temporal dynamics of mountain goat movements in and out of aerial survey sampling frames established within each park. We captured 25 mountain goats in Mount Rainier (9), North Cascades (5), and Olympic (11) National Parks, and fitted them with GPS-collars programmed to obtain 6-8 locations daily. We obtained location data on 23 mountain goats for a range of 39-751 days from 2003 to 2008. Altitudinal distributions of GPS-collared mountain goats varied individually and seasonally, but median altitudes used by individual goats during winter ranged from 817 to 1,541 meters in Olympic and North Cascades National Parks, and 1,215 to 1,787 meters in Mount Rainier National Park. Median altitudes used by GPS-collared goats during summer ranged from 1,312 to 1,819 meters in Olympic and North Cascades National Parks, and 1,780 to 2,061 meters in Mount Rainier National Park. GPS-collared mountain goats generally moved from low-altitude winter ranges to high-altitude summer ranges between June 11 and June 19 (range April 24-July 3) and from summer to winter ranges between October 26 and November 9 (range September 11-December 23). Seasonal home ranges (95 percent of adaptive kernel utilization distribution) of males and female mountain goats were highly variable, ranging from 1.6 to 37.0 kilometers during summers and 0.7 to 9.5 kilometers during winters. Locations of GPS-collared mountain goats were almost 100 percent within the sampling frame used for mountain goat surveys in Mount Rainier National Park, whereas generally greater than 80 and greater than 60 percent of locations were within sampling units delineated in North Cascades and Olympic National Parks, respectively. Presence of GPS-collared mountain goats within the sampling frame of Olympic National Park varied by diurnal period (midday versus crepuscular), survey season (July versus September), and the interaction of diurnal period and survey season. Aerial surveys conducted in developing a sightability model for mountain goat aerial surveys indicated mean detection probabilities of 0.69, 0.76, and 0.87 in North Cascades, Olympic, and Mount Rainier National Parks, respectively. Higher detection probabilities in Mount Rainier likely reflected larger group sizes and more open habitat conditions than in North Cascades and Olympic National Parks. Use of sightability models will reduce biases of population estimates in each park, but resulting population estimates must still be considered minimum population estimates in Olympic and North Cascades National Parks because the current sampling frames do not encompass those populations completely. Because mountain goats were reliably present within the sampling frame in Mount Rainier National Park, we found no compelling need to adjust mountain goat survey boundaries in that park. Expanding survey coverage in North Cascades and Olympic National Parks to more reliably encompass the altitudinal distribution of mountain goats during summer would enhance population estimation accuracy in the future. Lowering the altitude boundary of mountain goat survey units by as little as 100 meters to 1,425 meters in Olympic National Park would increase mountain goat presence within the survey and reduce variation in counts related to movements of mountain goats outside the survey boundaries.

Open-File Report↗

USGS2011

Mountain goat abundance and population trends in the Olympic Mountains, Washington, 2011

We conducted an aerial helicopter survey between July 18 and July 25, 2011, to estimate abundance and trends of introduced mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) in the Olympic Mountains. The survey was the first since we developed a sightability correction model in 2008, which provided the means to estimate the number of mountain goats present in the surveyed areas and not seen during the aerial surveys, and to adjust for undercounting biases. Additionally, the count was the first since recent telemetry studies revealed that the previously defined survey zone, which was delineated at lower elevations by the 1,520-meter elevation contour, did not encompass all lands used by mountain goats during summer. We redefined the lower elevation boundary of survey units before conducting the 2011 surveys in an effort to more accurately estimate the entire mountain goat population. We surveyed 39 survey units, comprising 39 percent of the 59,615-hectare survey area. We estimated a mountain goat population of 344±44 (standard error, SE) in the expanded survey area. Based on this level of estimation uncertainty, the 95-percent confidence interval ranged from 258 to 430 mountain goats at the time of the survey. To permit comparisons of mountain goat populations between the 2004 and 2011 surveys, we recomputed population estimates derived from the 2004 survey using the newly developed bias correction methods, and we computed the 2004 and 2011 surveys based on comparable survey zone definitions (for example, using the boundaries of the 2004 survey). The recomputed estimates of mountain goat populations were 217±19 (SE) in 2004 and 303±41(SE) in 2011. The difference between the current 2011 population estimate (344±44[SE]) and the recomputed 2011 estimate (303±41[SE]) reflects the number of mountain goats counted in the expanded lower elevation portions of the survey zone added in 2011. We conclude that the population of mountain goats has increased in the Olympic Mountains at an average rate of 4.9±2.2(SE) percent annually since 2004. We caution that the estimated rate of population growth may be conservative if severe spring weather deterred some mountain goats from reaching the high-elevation survey areas during the 2011 surveys. If the estimated average rate of population growth were to remain constant in the future, then the population would double in approximately 14-15 years.

Washington↗

USGS2003

A Framework for Long-term Ecological Monitoring in Olympic National Park: Prototype for the Coniferous Forest Biome

This report is the result of a five-year collaboration between scientists of the U.S. Geological Survey Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, Olympic Field Station, and the natural resources staff of Olympic National Park to develop a comprehensive strategy for monitoring natural resources of Olympic National Park. Olympic National Park is the National Park Serviceʼs prototype monitoring park, representing parks in the coniferous forest biome. Under the umbrella of the National Park Serviceʼs prototype parks program, U.S. Geological Survey and Olympic National Park staffs are obligated to: develop strategies and designs for monitoring the long-term health and integrity of national park ecosystems with a significant coniferous forest component. design exportable monitoring protocols that can be used by other parks within the coniferous forest biome (i.e., parks having similar environments), and create a demonstration area and ʻcenter of excellenceʼ for assisting other parks in developing ecological monitoring programs. Olympic National Park is part of the North Coast and Cascades Network, a network of seven Pacific Northwestern park units created recently by the National Park Serviceʼs Inventory and Monitoring Program to extend the monitoring of ʻvital signsʼ of park health to all National Park Service units. It is our intent and hope that the monitoring strategies and conceptual models described here will meet the overall purpose of the prototype parks monitoring program in proving useful not only to Olympic National Park, but also to parks within the North Coast and Cascades Network and elsewhere. Part I contains the conceptual design and sampling framework for the prototype long-term monitoring program in Olympic National Park. In this section, we explore key elements of monitoring design that help to ensure the spatial, ecological, and temporal integration of monitoring program elements and discuss approaches used to design an ecosystem-based monitoring program. Basic monitoring components include ecosystem drivers, (e.g., climate, atmospheric inputs, human pressures), indicators of ecosystem integrity (e.g., biogeochemical indicators), known threats (e.g., impacts of introduced mountain goats), and focal or ʻkeyʼ species (e.g., rare or listed species, Roosevelt elk). Monitoring system drivers and key indicators of ecosystem integrity provide the long-term baseline needed to judge what constitutes ʻunnaturalʼ variation in park resources and provide the earliest possible warning of unacceptable change. Monitoring effects of known threats and the status of focal species will provide information useful to park managers for dealing with current park issues. In Part I we describe the process of identifying potential indicators of ecological condition and present conceptual models of park ecosystems. In addition we report results from several workshops held in conjunction with Olympic National Park aimed at identifying potential indicators of change in the parkʼs ecosystem. First, we describe the responses of Olympic National Park staff to the generic question, “What is the most important resource to monitor in Olympic National Park and why?” followed by the responses from resource and land managers from areas adjoining the park. We also catalogue the responses of various expert groups that we asked to help identify the most appropriate system drivers and indicators of change in the Olympic National Park ecosystems. Results of the workshops provided the justification for selecting basic indicators of ecosystem integrity, effects of current threats to park resources, and focal resources of parks to detect both the currently evident and unforeseeable changes in park resources. We conclude Part I by exploring several generic statistical issues relevant to monitoring natural resources in Olympic National Park. Specifically we discuss trade-offs associated with sampling extensively versus sampling intensively in smaller geographic regions and describe a conceptual framework to guide development of a generic sampling frame for monitoring. We recommend partitioning Olympic National Park into three zones of decreasing accessibility to maximize monitoring efficiency. We present examples of how the generic sampling frame could be used to help ensure spatial integration of individual monitoring projects. Part II of the report is a record of the potential monitoring questions and indicators identified to date in our workshops. The presentation is organized according to the major system drivers, components, and processes identified in the intermediate-level working model of the Olympic National Park ecosystem. For each component of the park system, we develop the need and justification for monitoring, articulate park management issues, and describe key resources and ecosystem functions. We also present a pictorial conceptual model of each ecological subsystem, identify monitoring questions, and list potential indicators for each monitoring question. We conclude each section by identifying linkages of indicators to other ecological subsystems in our general ecosystem model, spatial and temporal contexts for monitoring (where and how often to monitor), and research and development needs. Part II represents the most current detailed listing of potential indicators—the material for subsequent discussions of monitoring priorities and selection of indicators for protocol development. Collectively, the sections of this report contain a comprehensive list of the important monitoring questions and potential indicators as well as recommendations for designing an integrated monitoring program. In Part I, Chapter 6 we provide recommendations on how to proceed with the important next steps in the design process: establishing priorities among the many possible monitoring questions and indicators, and beginning to research and design effective long-term monitoring protocols.

Information and Technology Report↗