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Geology topics

K.D. Kelley

Publications and source records attributed to K.D. Kelley.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
USGS2022

Metal dispersion and mobility in soils from the Lik Zn-Pb-Ag massive sulphide deposit, NW Alaska: Environmental and exploration implications

The Lik deposit in northern Alaska is a largely unexposed shale-hosted Zn-Pb-Ag massive sulphide deposit that is underlain by continuous permafrost. Residual soils overlying the mineralized zone have element enrichments that are two to six times greater than baseline values. The most prominent elements are Ag, Mo, P, Se, Sr, V by total 4-acid digestion and Tl by a weak partial digestion (Enzyme Leach or EL) because they show multi-point anomalies that extend across the entire mineralized zone, concentration ranges are 0.5-2.6 ppm Ag, 4-26 ppm Mo, 0.1-0.3% P, 3-22 ppm Se, 90-230 ppm Sr, 170-406 ppm V, and 1.6-30 ppb Tl. Lead, Sb, and Hg are also anomalous (up to 178 ppm, 30 ppm, and 1.9 ppm, respectively), but all are characterized by single point anomalies directly over the mineralized zone, with only slightly elevated concentrations over the lower mineralized section. Zinc (total) has a consistent baseline response of 200 ppm, but it is not elevated in soils overlying the mineralized zone. However, Zn by EL shows a distinct single-point anomaly over the ore zone that suggests it was highly mobile and partly adsorbed on oxides or other secondary phases during weathering. In situ analyses (by laser ablation ICP-MS) of pyrite and sphalerite from drill core suggest that sphalerite is the primary residence for Ag, Cd, and Hg in addition to Zn, and pyrite contains As, Fe, Sb, and Tl. The level and degree of oxidation, and the proportion of reacting pyrite and carbonate minerals are two factors that affected the mobility and transport of metals. In oxidizing conditions, Zn is highly mobile relative to Hg and Ag, perhaps explaining the decoupling of Zn from the other sphalerite-hosted elements in the soils. Soils are acidic (to 3.9 pH) directly over the deposit due to the presence of acid-producing pyrite, but acid-neutralizing carbonate away from the mineralized zone yield soils that are near neutral. The soils therefore formed in a complex system involving oxidation and weathering (mechanical and chemical) of sulphide minerals, dissolution of carbonate minerals, and precipitation of iron and manganese oxide minerals.

Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis↗
USGS2022

Natural versus anthropogenic dispersion of metals to the environment in the Wulik River area, western Brooks Range, northern Alaska

Zinc-lead-silver mineral deposits in the Wulik River region, Alaska, contain an enormous accumulation of Zn. In addition to the giant deposits at Red Dog, at least nine other deposits are known. Natural weathering of these deposits has dispersed metals over a wide region over a long period of time (c. 10 000 years) through transport by stream and groundwater, stream sediments, formation of soils, and perhaps wind-blown atmospheric deposition from weathering of naturally enriched Pb-Zn surface deposits. Anthropogenic input also contributes metals to the environment. Mining of the Red Dog deposit, which began in 1989, produces fine-grained galena and sphalerite concentrates that are transported from the mine site by truck to a storage port facility. Wind-blown dispersion of concentrate dust along the road and around the port facility has been a source of local metal-rich surficial materials. Geochemical and mineralogical characteristics provide a means of distinguishing the natural versus anthropogenic metal sources. Soils over deposits have patterns of increasing metal contents with depth and proximity to the metal-bearing source, whereas ore concentrate dust is localized at the surface. The acidity produced by weathering of the sulphide deposits creates an environment in which elements such as Se and Mo are stable whereas Ca is not. Consequently, high Mo (up to 29 ppm) and Se (up to 17 ppm) and low Ca (<0.4%) concentrations characterize surficial materials near natural deposits. Acidic conditions also yield high Pb-Zn ratios (up to 70) because sphalerite is preferentially dissolved and Zn is mobilized during chemical weathering. In natural materials, secondary jarosite and anglesite are developed, and minor galena is etched and rounded due to a history of chemical and mechanical weathering. In contrast, dust-bearing samples have Pb/Zn ratios that are 0.4 or less, Ca contents are higher (0.2 to 3.6%), and Mo (<10 ppm) and Se (not detected) concentrations are low. Furthermore, galena and sphalerite grains are angular and secondary minerals are lacking. ?? 2007 AAG/Geological Society of London.

Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis↗
USGS2011

Geophysical, geochemical, and mineralogical data from the Pebble Cu-Au-Mo porphyry deposit area, southwest Alaska: Contributions to assessment techniques for concealed mineral resources

In 2007, the U.S. Geological Survey began a multidisciplinary study in southwest Alaska to investigate the setting and detectability of mineral deposits in concealed volcanic and glacial terranes. The study area hosts the world-class Pebble porphyry Cu-Au-Mo deposit, and through collaboration with the Pebble Limited Partnership, a range of geophysical and geochemical investigations was carried out in proximity to the deposit. The deposit is almost entirely concealed by tundra, glacial deposits, and post-mineralization volcanic rocks. The discovery of mineral resources beneath cover is becoming more important because most of the mineral resources at the surface have already been discovered. Research is needed to identify ways in which to assess for concealed mineral resources. This report presents the uninterpreted geophysical measurements and geochemical and mineralogical analytical data from samples collected during the summer field seasons from 2007 to 2010, and makes the data available in a single Geographic Information System (GIS) database.

Alaska↗
USGS2009

Zinc isotopes in sphalerite from base metal deposits in the Red Dog district, northern Alaska

Analyses of sphalerite samples from shale-hosted massive sulfide and stratigraphically underlying vein breccia deposits in the Red Dog district in northern Alaska show a range ?? 66 Zn values from zero to 0.60 per mil. The lowest values are observed in the vein breccia deposits, and the stratigraphically overlying (but structurally displaced) shale-hosted massive sulfide deposits show a systematic trend of increasing ?? 66 Zn values from south to north (Main-Aqqaluk-Paalaaq-Anarraaq). The ?? 66 Zn values are inversely correlated with sphalerite Fe/Mn ratio and also tend to be higher in low Cu sphalerite, consistent with precipitation of lower ?? 66 Zn sphalerite closer to the principal hydrothermal fluid conduits. The most likely control on isotopic variation is Rayleigh fractionation during sulfide precipitation, with lighter zinc isotopes preferentially incorporated in the earliest sphalerite to precipitate from ore fluids at deeper levels (vein breccias) and close to the principal fluid conduits in the orebodies, followed by precipitation of sulfides with higher ?? 66 Zn values in shallower and/or more distal parts of the flow path. There is no systematic variation among the paragenetic stages of sphalerite from a single deposit, suggesting an isotopically homogeneous zinc source and consistent transport-deposition conditions and/or dissolution-reprecipitation of earlier sphalerite without significant fractionation. Decoupled Zn and S isotope compositions are best explained by mixing of separate metal- and sulfur-bearing fluids at the depositional site. The results confirm that Zn isotopes may be a useful tracer for distinguishing between the central and distal parts of large hydrothermal systems as previously suggested and could therefore be of use in exploration. ?? 2009 by Economic Geology.

Economic Geology↗
USGS2009

Scientific communications: Re-Os sulfide (bornite, chalcopyrite, and pyrite) systematics of the carbonate-hosted copper deposits at ruby creek, southern brooks range, Alaska

New Re-Os data for chalcopyrite, bornite, and pyrite from the carbonate-hosted Cu deposit at Ruby Creek (Bornite), Alaska, show extremely high Re abundances (hundreds of ppb, low ppm) and contain essentially no common Os. The Re-Os data provide the first absolute ages of ore formation for the carbonate-hosted Ruby Creek Cu-(Co) deposit and demonstrate that the Re-Os systematics of pyrite, chalcopyrite, and bornite are unaffected by greenschist metamorphism. The Re-Os data show that the main phase of Cu mineralization pre dominantly occurred at 384 ?? 4.2 Ma, with an earlier phase possibly at ???400 Ma. The Re-Os data are consistent with the observed paragenetic sequence and coincide with zircon U-Pb ages from igneous rocks within the Ambler metallogenic belt, some of which are spatially and genetically associated with regional volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits. The latter may suggest a temporal link between regional magmatism and hydrothermal mineralization in the Ambler district. The utility of bornite and chalcopyrite, in addition to pyrite, contributes to a new understanding of Re-Os geochronology and permits a refinement of the genetic model for the Ruby Creek deposit. ?? 2009 Society of Economices Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology↗
USGS2009

Trace elements in Zn Pb Ag deposits and related stream sediments, Brooks Range Alaska, with implications for Tl as a pathfinder element

The Zn-Pb-Ag metallogenic province of the western and central Brooks Range, Alaska, contains two distinct but mineralogically similar deposit types: shale-hosted massive sulphide (SHMS) and smaller vein-breccia occurrences. Recent investigations of the Red Dog and Anarraaq SHMS deposits demonstrated that these deposits are characterized by high trace-element concentrations of As, Ge, Sb and Tl. This paper examines geochemistry of additional SHMS deposits (Drenchwater and Su-Lik) to determine which trace elements are ubiquitously elevated in all SHMS deposits. Data from several vein-breccia occurrences are also presented to see if trace-element concentrations can distinguish SHMS deposits from vein-breccia occurrences. Whole-rock geochemical data indicate that Tl is the most consistently and highly concentrated characteristic trace element in SHMS deposits relative to regional unmineralized rock samples. Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) analyses of pyrite and sphalerite indicate that Tl is concentrated in pyrite in SHMS. Stream sediment data from the Drenchwater and Su-Lik SHMS show that high Tl concentrations are more broadly distributed proximal to known or suspected mineralization than As, Sb, Zn and Pb anomalies. This broader distribution of Tl in whole-rock and particularly stream sediment samples increases the footprint of exposed and shallowly buried SHMS mineralization. High Tl concentrations also distinguish SHMS mineralization from the vein-breccia deposits, as the latter lack high concentrations of Tl but can otherwise have similar trace-element signatures to SHMS deposits. ?? 2009 AAG/Geological Society of London.

Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis↗
USGS2009

The Drenchwater deposit, Alaska: An example of a natural low pH environment resulting from weathering of an undisturbed shale-hosted Zn-Pb-Ag deposit

The Drenchwater shale-hosted Zn-Pb-Ag deposit and the immediate vicinity, on the northern flank of the Brooks Range in north-central Alaska, is an ideal example of a naturally low pH system. The two drainages, Drenchwater and False Wager Creeks, which bound the deposit, differ in their acidity and metal contents. Moderately acidic waters with elevated concentrations of metals (pH ??? 4.3, Zn ??? 1400 ??g/L) in the Drenchwater Creek drainage basin are attributed to weathering of an exposed base-metal-rich massive sulfide occurrence. Stream sediment and water chemistry data collected from False Wager Creek suggest that an unexposed base-metal sulfide occurrence may account for the lower pH (2.7-3.1) and very metal-rich waters (up to 2600 ??g/L Zn, ??? 260 ??g/L Cu and ???89 ??g/L Tl) collected at least 2 km upstream of known mineralized exposures. These more acidic conditions produce jarosite, schwertmannite and Fe-hydroxides commonly associated with acid-mine drainage. The high metal concentrations in some water samples from both streams naturally exceed Alaska state regulatory limits for freshwater aquatic life, affirming the importance of establishing base-line conditions in the event of human land development. The studies at the Drenchwater deposit demonstrate that poor water quality can be generated through entirely natural weathering of base-metal occurrences, and, possibly unmineralized black shale.

Applied Geochemistry↗
USGS2008

Reactive flow models of the Anarraaq Zn-Pb-Ag deposit, Red Dog district, Alaska

The Red Dog ore deposit district in the Brooks Range of northern Alaska is host to several high-grade, shale-hosted Zn + Pb deposits. Due to the complex history and deformation of these ore deposits, the geological and hydrological conditions at the time of formation are poorly understood. Using geological observations and fluid inclusion data as constraints, numerical heat and fluid flow simulations of the Anarraaq ore deposit environment and coupled reactive flow simulations of a section of the ore body were conducted to gain more insight into the conditions of ore body formation. Results suggest that the ore body and associated base metal zonation may have formed by the mixing of oxidized, saline, metal-bearing hydrothermal fluids (<200??C) with reducing, HS-rich pore fluids within radiolarite-rich host rocks. Sphalerite and galena concentrations and base metal sulfide distribution are primarily controlled by the nature of the pore fluids, i.e., the extent and duration of the HS- source. Forward modeling results also predict the distribution of pyrite and quartz in agreement with field observations and indicate a reaction front moving from the initial mixing interface into the radiolarite rocks. Heuristic mass calculations suggest that ore grades and base metal accumulation comparable to those found in the field (18% Zn, 5% Pb) are predicted to be reached after about 0.3 My for initial conditions (30 ppm Zn, 3 ppm Pb; 20% deposition efficiency). ?? Springer-Verlag 2008.

Mineralium Deposita↗
USGS2006

Beyond the obvious limits of ore deposits: The use of mineralogical, geochemical, and biological features for the remote detection of mineralization

Far field features of ore deposits include mineralogical, geochemical, or biological attributes that can be recognized beyond the obvious limits of the deposits. They can be primary, if formed in association with mineralization or alteration processes, or secondary, if formed from the interaction of ore deposits with the hydrosphere and biosphere. This paper examines a variety of far field features of different ore deposit types and considers novel applications to exploration and discovery. Primary far field features include mineral and rock chemistry, isotopic or element halos, fluid pathways and thermal anomalies in host-rock sequences. Examples include the use of apatite chemistry to distinguish intrusive rocks permissive for iron oxide copper gold (IOCG) and porphyry deposits; resistate mineral (e.g., rutile, tourmaline) chemistry in exploration for volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS), orogenic gold, and porphyry deposits; and pyrite chemistry to vector toward sedimentary exhalative (sedex) deposits. Distinctive whole-rock geochemical signatures also can be recognized as a far field feature of porphyry deposits. For example, unique Sr/Y ratios in whole-rock samples, used to distinguish barren versus fertile magmas for Cu mineralization, result from the differentiation of oxidized hydrous melts. Anomalous concentrations of halogen elements (Cl, Br, and I) have been found for distances of up to 200 m away from some mineralized centers. Variations in isotopic composition between ore-bearing and barren intrusions and/or systematic vertical and lateral zonation in sulfur, carbon, or oxygen isotope values have been documented for some deposit types. Owing to the thermal aureole that extends beyond the area of mineralization for some deposits, detection of paleothermal effects through methods such as conodont alteration indices, vitrinite or bitumen reflectance, illite crystallinity, and apatite or zircon thermochronology studies also can be valuable, particularly for deposits with a low-temperature thermal history. A number of newly investigated secondary far field features include the development of reduced columns by electrochemical processes in transported overburden, geochemical dispersion related to the expulsion of groundwater from tectonic and seismic compression, dispersion of vapor above ore deposits, and geochemical dispersion related to biological processes. Redox gradients have been found between underlying reduced and overlying oxidized environments associated with sulfide bodies, which result in mass transfer through electro-chemical dispersion. Recent studies have characterized the pH, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), and self potential (SP) in overburden overlying sulfide-hosted gold and VMS deposits. Lateral migration of metals in groundwater is well understood from normal groundwater flow, but the processes responsible for vertical mass transfer of groundwater and its dissolved components have been recognized only recently. One process, termed cyclical dilatancy pumping, expels groundwater during and after earthquake events, which can cause the redistribution of metals around deposits in some environments. Soil gases are of interest owing to their high degree of mobility through the vadose zone in transported overburden. Numerous soil gas species (CO2, O2, Hg, Rn, He, sulfur compounds, and light hydrocarbons) have been measured and interpreted as diagnostic of some buried mineral deposits, and some evidence suggests a possible link between vapor dispersion and metal enrichment in soil. Geochemical enrichment in plant material and soils through successive growth-death cycles is well established, but the important role of microorganisms is now increasingly evident. Microorganisms significantly enhance the kinetics of sulfide oxidation and influence the distribution of metals around ore deposits. The presence of metal-resistant bacteria and enhanced concentrations of sulfate-reducing bacteria in exotic overburd

Economic Geology↗
USGS2004

Sulfur and oxygen isotopes in barite deposits of the western Brooks Range, Alaska, and implications for the origin of the Red Dog massive sulfide deposits

Sulfur and oxygen isotope analyses have been obtained for barite samples from the giant stratiform sulfide barite deposits at Red Dog in the western Brooks Range of Alaska, from stratiform barite deposits elsewhere in the Red Dog district, and from stratiform and vein and breccia barite occurrences in the central Brooks Range. Twelve of the 15 deposits studied lie within middle to Upper Mississippian black shale and chert units. The data reveal two different patterns on ?? 34S versus ??18O plots. The first, which is best illustrated by the barite deposit at Anarraaq, shows linear trends with slopes that vary with barite texture. For most samples, ??34S and ??18O values are both higher than the values characteristic of Mississippian marine sulfate. The second pattern, which is evident at the Red Dog deposits, shows no correlation between ??34S and ??18. In most samples, ??18O is below the value for Mississippian marine sulfate. Comparisons with sulfate in modern marine environments suggest a possible model for the mineralizing process. Anarraaq-type barite formed at sea-floor vents where ascending fluids carrying barium and methane encountered sulfate-bearing pore waters or bottom waters. Barite deposition was accompanied by the reduction of sulfate to H2S by means of microbially mediated anaerobic methane oxidation. Red Dog-type barite was formed in a manner similar to Anarraaq-type barite but was over-printed by a massive sulfide-forming event. Red Dog sulfides precipitated where metal-bearing hydrothermal fluids encountered pore waters that had been charged with H2S by anaerobic methane oxidation. Textural and isotopic evidence indicates that the sulfide bodies grew by consuming the available H2S and then by reductively dissolving barite. Dissolution of barite caused barium to be released to higher stratigraphic levels where it was reprecipitated on encountering sulfate. Isotopic evidence is pre sented for a link between methane venting and barite formation and raises the possibility that the coexistence of barite and sulfide at Red Dog, and the occurrence elsewhere in the district of barite-only and sulfide-only deposits, can be explained by a spectrum of vent types in the Mississippian basin analogous to the spectrum that is observed today along the modern continental margins. Authigenic barite formed at some but not all methane seeps, perhaps owing to differences in the barium content of vent fluids, differences in the relative proportion of aqueous fluid and gas emanating from vents, or differences in sulfate availability in local bottom waters. Some barite-forming seeps were later replaced by sulfides (Red Dog deposits) whereas others were not (e.g., Anarraaq barite horizon, Gull Creek, Moil). At sulfide occurrences where there is little evidence of preexisting barite (e.g., Anarraaq, Wulik, Suds), methane venting is indicated by fossils suggestive of chemosynthetic fauna. Mammiform sedimentary structures that are widespread in black chert at the top of the Kuna Formation may represent seeps that supported neither authigenic mineral formation nor chemosynthetic megafauna. ?? 2004 by Economic Geology.

Economic Geology↗
USGS2004

Multistage hydrothermal silicification and Fe-Tl-As-Sb-Ge-REE enrichment in the Red Dog Zn-Pb-Ag district, northern Alaska: Geochemistry, origin, and exploration applications

Geochemical analyses of major, trace, and rare earth elements (REE) in more than 200 samples of variably silicified and altered wall rocks, massive and banded sulfide, silica rock, and sulfide-rich and unmineralized barite were obtained from the Main, Aqqaluk, and Anarraaq deposits in the Red Dog Zn-Pb-Ag district of northern Alaska. Detailed lithogeochemical profiles for two drill cores at Aqqaluk display an antithetic relationship between SiO2/Al2O3 and TiO2/Zr which, together with textural information, suggest preferential silicification of carbonate-bearing sediments. Data for both drill cores also show generally high Tl, Sb, As, and Ge and uniformly positive Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* > 1.0). Similar high Tl, Sb, As, Ge, and Eu/Eu* values are present in the footwall and shallow hanging wall of Zn-Pb-Ag sulfide intervals at Anarraaq but are not as widely dispersed. Net chemical changes for altered wall rocks in the district, on the basis of average Al-normalized data relative to unaltered black shales of the host Kuna Formation, include large enrichments (>50%) of Fe, Ba, Eu, V, S, Co, Zn, Pb, Tl, As, Sb, and Ge at both Red Dog and Anarraaq, Si at Red Dog, and Sr, U, and Se at Anarraaq. Large depletions (>50%) are evident for Ca at both Red Dog and Anarraaq, for Mg, P, and Y at Red Dog, and for Na at Anarraaq. At both Red Dog and Anarraaq, wall-rock alteration removed calcite and minor dolomite during hydrothermal decarbonation reactions and introduced Si, Eu, and Ge during silicification. Sulfidation reactions deposited Fe, S, Co, Zn, Pb, Tl, As, and Sb; barite mineralization introduced Ba, S, and Sr. Light REE and U were mobilized locally. This alteration and mineralization occurred during Mississippi an hydrothermal events that predated the Middle Jurassic-Cretaceous Brookian orogeny. Early hydrothermal silicification at Red Dog took place prior to or during massive sulfide mineralization, on the basis of the dominantly planar nature of Zn-Pb veins, which suggests filling of fractures that developed in previously lithified rock. Uniformly low Ca and Mg and uniformly negative Ce anomalies in highly siliceous Red Dog wall rocks reflect hydrothermal decarbonation reactions and pervasive silicification owing to conductive cooling of oxidized metalliferous fluids. Similar Ca and Mg depletions are evident at Anarraaq but generally lack associated silicification, possibly because temperatures of the hydrothermal fluids were too low (<180??C) or because the thermal contrast between the fluids and wall rocks was smaller owing to the greater depth of alteration and mineralization there, compared with Red Dog. Chalcophile element anomalies (Fe, Zn, Pb, Tl, As, Sb) in wall rocks at both Red Dog and Anarraq are attributed to sulfidation reactions, coeval with subsurface Zn-Pb-Ag mineralization, during the mixing of oxidized metalliferous fluids with H2S-rich fluids derived locally within the Kuna Formation. Sedimentary wall rocks in the Red Dog district are characterized by a distinctive suite of geochemical anomalies, especially for Zn, Pb, Tl, As, Sb, Ge, and Eu/Eu*. At the Aqqaluk deposit, wall rocks without visible sphalerite or galena (<300 ppm Zn + Pb) have anomalous Eu/Eu*, Tl, Sb, and As for up to ???100 m stratigraphically below Zn-rich silica rock. At Anarraaq, the Tl anomaly is most extensively developed, and enrichment relative to unaltered black shale of the Kuna Formation is present up to 62 m above the highest Zn-Pb sulfide zones. The magnitude of the enrichment and systematic behavior of Tl in the district make Tl a promising geochemical exploration guide for Red Dog-type Zn-Pb-Ag deposits elsewhere. ?? 2004 by Economic Geology.

Economic Geology↗
USGS2004

Textural, compositional, and sulfur isotope variations of sulfide minerals in the Red Dog Zn-Pb-Ag deposits, Brooks Range, Alaska: Implications for Ore Formation

The Red Dog Zn-Pb deposits are hosted in organic-rich mudstone and shale of the Mississippian Kuna Formation. A complex mineralization history is defined by four sphalerite types or stages: (1) early brown sphalerite, (2) yellow-brown sphalerite, (3) red-brown sphalerite, and (4) late tan sphalerite. Stages 2 and 3 constitute the main ore-forming event and are volumetrically the most important. Sulfides in stages 1 and 2 were deposited with barite, whereas stage 3 largely replaces barite. Distinct chemical differences exist among the different stages of sphalerite. From early brown sphalerite to later yellow-brown sphalerite and red-brown sphalerite, Fe and Co content generally increase and Mn and Tl content generally decrease. Early brown sphalerite contains no more than 1.9 wt percent Fe and 63 ppm Co, with high Mn (up to 37 ppm) and Tl (126 ppm), whereas yellow-brown sphalerite and red-brown sphalerite contain high Fe (up to 7.3 wt %) and Co (up to 382 ppm), and low Mn (<27 ppm) and Tl (<37 ppm). Late tan sphalerite has distinctly lower Fe (< 0.9 wt %) and higher Tl (up to 355 ppm), Mn (up to 177 ppm), and Ge (426 ppm), relative to earlier sphalerite. Wide ranges in concentrations of Ag, Cu, Pb, and Sb characterize all sphalerite types, particularly yellow-brown sphalerite and red-brown sphalerite, and most likely reflect submicroscopic inclusions of galena, chalcopyrite and/or tetrahedrite in the sphalerite. In situ ion microprobe sulfur isotope analyses show a progression from extremely low ??34S values for stage 1 (as low as -37.20???) to much higher values for yellow-brown sphalerite (mean of 3.3???; n = 30) and red-brown sphalerite (mean of 3.4; n = 20). Late tan sphalerite is isotopically light (-16.4 to -27.2???). The textural, chem ical, and isotopic data indicate the following paragenesis: (1) deposition of early brown sphalerite with abundant barite, minor pyrite, and trace galena immediately beneath the sea floor in unconsolidated mud; (2) deposition of yellow-brown sphalerite during subsea-floor hydrothermal recrystallization and coarsening of preexisting barite; (3) open-space deposition of barite, red-brown sphalerite and other sulfides in veins and coeval replacement of barite; and (4) postore sulfide deposition, including the formation of late tan sphalerite breccias. Stage 1 mineralization took place in a low-temperature environment where fluids rich in Ba mixed with pore water or water-column sulfate to form barite, and metals combined with H2S derived from bacterial sulfate reduction to form sulfides. Higher temperatures and salinities and relatively oxidized ore-stage fluids (stages 2 and 3) compared with stage 1 were probably important controls on the abundances and relative amounts of metals in the fluids and the resulting sulfide chemistry. Textural observations and isotopic data show that preexisting barite was reductively dissolved, providing a source of H2S for sulfide mineral formation. In stage 3, the continued flow of hydrothermal fluids caused thermal alteration of organic-rich mudstones and a build-up of methane that led to fluid overpressuring, hydrofracturing, and vein formation. Barite, red-brown sphalerite, and other sulfides were deposited in the veins, and preexisting barite was pervasively replaced by red-brown sphalerite. Hydrothermal activity ceased until Jurassic time when thrusting and large-scale fluid flow related to the Brookian orogeny remobilized and formed late tan sphalerite in tectonic breccias. ?? 2004 by Economic Geology.

Economic Geology↗
USGS2004

Origin of the Red Dog Zn-Pb-Ag deposits, Brooks Range, Alaska: Evidence from regional Pb and Sr isotope sources

Pb and Sr isotope data were obtained on the shale-hosted Zn-Pb-Ag Red Dog deposits (Qanaiyaq, Main, Aqqaluk, and Paalaaq), other shale-hosted deposits near Red Dog, and Zn-Pb-Ag sulfide and barite deposits in the western and central Brooks Range. The Red Dog deposits and other shale-hosted Zn-Pb-Ag deposits near Red Dog are hosted in the Mississippian Kuna Formation, which is underlain by a sequence of marine-deltaic clastic rocks of the Upper Devonian to Lower Mississippian Endicott Group. Ag-Pb-Zn vein-breccias are found in the Endicott Group. Galena formed during the main mineralization stages in the Red Dog deposits and from the Anarraaq and Wulik deposits have overlapping Pb isotope compositions in the range 206Pb/204Pb = 18.364 to 18.428, 207Pb/204Pb = 15.553 to 15.621, and 208Pb/204Pb = 38.083 to 38.323. Galena and sphalerite formed during the main ore-forming stages in the Red Dog deposits define a narrow field on standard uranogenic and thorogenic Pb isotope diagrams. Lead in sulfides of the Red Dog district is less radiogenic (238U/204Pb: ?? = 9.51-9.77) than is indicated by the average crustal lead evolution model (?? = 9.74), a difference consistent with a long history of evolution at low ratios of ?? before the Carboniferous. The homogeneous regional isotopic reservoir of Pb may indicate large-scale transport and leaching of minerals with various ?? ratios and Th/Pb ratios. Younger and genetically unrelated fluids did not significantly disturb the isotopic compositions of galena and sphalerite after the main mineralization event in the Red Dog district. Some pyrite shows evidence of minor Pb remobilization. The overall lead isotope homogeneity in the shale-hosted massive sulfide deposits is consistent with three types of control: a homogeneous regional source, mixing of lead during leaching of a thick sedimentary section and fluid transport, or mixing at the site of deposition. Isotopic variability of the hydrothermal fluids, as represented by galena in the Red Dog district, appears to be consistent with a simple mixing system. Evidence indicates that galena was deposited from largely similar hydrothermal solutions throughout the Red Dog district. A shared regional isotopic reservoir is also supported by the correspondence of Pb isotope compositions of galena in deposits of the Red Dog district and galena in clastic rocks (vein-breccias). Leaching of metals and progressive extraction of radiogenic lead from the clastic rocks in the Endicott Group may account for the trend of increasing 206Pb/204Pb in galena of the Red Dog district. Galena in the Red Dog deposits is unlikely to have been derived entirely from the same isotopic reservoir as that represented by the lead in the Kuna Formation or from the igneous rocks in the Red Dog district. Sr isotope data for barite, calcite, and witherite from the Red Dog deposits are compared with data from regional barite that is associated with sulfides and from barite in sulfide-poor occurrences. Fluids with heterogeneous Sr isotope signatures are indicated. Barite in the Main deposit extends to higher ratios of 87Sr/86Sr (0.709034-0.709899) than barite in the Anarraaq deposit (0.708615-0.709256). All barite is more radiogenic than Carboniferous seawater. Other Mississippian(?) shale-hosted deposits and mineral occurrences containing barite in the Red Dog district and barite in regional occurrences east of Red Dog in the western and central Brooks Range also have heterogeneous 87Sr/86Sr ratios. Carbonate (87Sr/86Sr = 0.710319-0.713637) and witherite (87 Sr/86 Sr = 0.710513) in the Main deposit are more radiogenic than barite. In contrast, carbonate (87Sr/86Sr = 0.708196-0.709740) intergrown with massive sulfides at Anarraaq has isotopic compositions similar to that of barite. Paragenetic and isotop ic studies suggest that early barite is similar to barite typically formed in cold seeps along continental margins. This early fine-grained barite formed before the main mineralizat

Economic Geology↗
USGS2004

Paleomagnetism of the Red Dog Zn-Pb massive sulfide deposit in northern Alaska

Paleomagnetic methods have isolated two ancient magnetizations in and around the Paleozoic shale-hosted Red Dog ore deposit in northern Alaska. A high-latitude, westerly magnetization carried by magnetite, termed characteristic remanent magnetization A, was found in rocks that have barite and/or substantial quartz replacement of barite. An intermediate- to low-latitude, southerly magnetization (characteristic remanent magnetization B) is carried by pyrrhotite and was found in rocks dominated by galena and sphalerite. The ages the two components are constrained by their relationship with geochemistry, radiometric age dating, and hypotheses for the Mesozoic tectonic history of the Brooks Range. Characteristic remanent magnetization A fails the fold test so it must postdate the end of Brookian orogenesis (??? 150 Ma). It is always found with replacement quartz that has a radiometric date (white mica from a vug, 39Ar/40Ar) of 126 Ma. The paleolatitude for characteristic remanent magnetization B is too shallow to be Mesozoic or younger, regardless of the model for the tectonic origin of northern Alaska, and must predate Brookian orogenesis. Geologic mapping suggests that most of the ore is syngenetic, formed at 330 to 340 Ma, and a radiometric date (Re-Os on pyrite) yields an age of 338 Ma. Since characteristic remanent magnetization B predates deformation, is found in mineralized rocks and is carried by pyrrhotite, it was probably acquired during the mineralizing process as well. The combined radiometric ages and paleomagnetic data sets can be best interpreted by assuming that northern Alaska was part of an accreted terrane that was translated northward by about 30?? into its current location relative to the rest of North America and then rotated counterclockwise by 50?? to 70??. This tectonic interpretation yields plausible magnetization ages for both characteristic remanent magnetization A and B. Geologic evidence, isotopic ages, and paleomagnetic data indicate formation of the deposit at a paleolatitude that is much lower than today. ?? 2004 by Economic Geology.

Economic Geology↗
USGS2004

Re-Os sulfide geochronology of the Red Dog sediment-hosted Zn-Pb-Ag deposit, Brooks Range, Alaska

The Red Dog sediment-hosted deposit in the De Long Mountains of northern Alaska is the largest Zn producer in the world. Main stage mineralization is characterized by massive sulfide ore and crosscutting subvertical veins. Although the vein mineralization is clearly younger than the massive ore, the exact temporal relationship between the two is unclear. Re-Os geochronology of pyrite is used to determine the absolute age of main stage ore at Red Dog. A 10-point isochron on both massive and vein pyrite yields an age of 338.3 ?? 5.8 Ma and is interpreted to represent the age of main stage ore. The Re-Os data indicate that both massive and vein ore types are coeval within the resolution of the technique. Formation of the Red Dog deposit was associated with extension along a passive continental margin, and therefore the Re-Os age of main stage ore constrains the timing of rifting as well as the age of the host sedimentary rocks. Sphalerite from both massive and vein ore yields imprecise ages and shows a high degree of scatter compared to pyrite. We suggest that the Re-Os systematics of sphalerite can be disturbed and that this mineral is not reliable for Re-Os geochronology. ?? 2004 by Economic Geology.

Economic Geology↗
USGS2004

The Anarraaq Zn-Pb-Ag and barite deposit, northern Alaska: Evidence for replacement of carbonate by barite and sulfides

The Anarraaq deposit in northern Alaska consists of a barite body, estimated to be as much as 1 billion metric tons, and a Zn-Pb-Ag massive sulfide zone with an estimated resource of about 18 Mt at 18 percent Zn, 5.4 percent Pb, and 85 g/t Ag. The barite and sulfide minerals are hosted by the uppermost part of the Mississippian Kuna Formation (Ikalukrok unit) that consists of carbonaceous and siliceous mudstone or shale interbedded with carbonate. The amount of interbedded carbonate in the Anarraaq deposit is atypical of the district as a whole, comprising as much as one third of the section. The total thickness of the Ikalukrok unit is considerably greater in the area of the deposit (210 to almost 350 m) than to the north and south (maximum of 164 m). The mineralized zone at Anarraaq is lens shaped and has a relatively flat top and a convex base. It also ranges greatly in thickness, from a few meters to more than 100 m. Textures of some of the carbonate layers are distinctive, consisting of nodules within siliceous mudstone or layers interbedded with shale. Many of the layers contain calcitized sponge spicules or radiolarians in a carbonate matrix. Textures of barite and sulfide minerals mimic those of carbonate and provide unequivocal evidence that replacement of precursor carbonate was an important process. Barite and sulfide textures include either nodular, bladed grains of various sizes that resemble spicules (observed only with iron sulfides) or well-rounded forms that are replaced radiolarians. Mineralization at Anarraaq probably occurred in a fault-bounded Carboniferous basin during early diagenesis in the shallow subsurface. The shape and size of the mineralized body suggest that barite and sulfides replaced calcareous mass flow deposits in a submarine channel. The distribution of biogenic and/or early diagenetic silica may have served as impermeable barriers to the fluids, thereby focusing and controlling fluid flow through unreplaced carbonate layers. ?? 2004 by Economic Geology.

Economic Geology↗
USGS2003

Coupled heat and fluid flow modeling of the Carboniferous Kuna Basin, Alaska: Implications for the genesis of the Red Dog Pb-Zn-Ag-Ba ore district

The Red Dog deposit is a giant 175 Mton (16% Zn, 5% Pb), shale-hosted Pb-Zn-Ag-Ba ore district situated in the Carboniferous Kuna Basin, Western Brooks Range, Alaska. These SEDEX-type ores are thought to have formed in calcareous turbidites and black mudstone at elevated sub-seafloor temperatures (120-150??C) within a hydrogeologic framework of submarine convection that was structurally organized by large normal faults. The theory for modeling brine migration and heat transport in the Kuna Basin is discussed with application to evaluating flow patterns and heat transport in faulted rift basins and the effects of buoyancy-driven free convection on reactive flow and ore genesis. Finite element simulations show that hydrothermal fluid was discharged into the Red Dog subbasin during a period of basin-wide crustal heat flow of 150-160 mW/m2. Basinal brines circulated to depths as great as 1-3 km along multiple normal faults flowed laterally through thick clastic aquifers acquiring metals and heat, and then rapidly ascended a single discharge fault zone at rates ??? 5 m/year to mix with seafloor sulfur and precipitate massive sulfide ores. ?? 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Conference Paper↗