Geology topics

John F. Walker

Publications and source records attributed to John F. Walker.

34 records · Page 2Linked to original sources

USGS2008

Flood of June 2008 in Southern Wisconsin

In June 2008, heavy rain caused severe flooding across southern Wisconsin. The floods were aggravated by saturated soils that persisted from unusually wet antecedent conditions from a combination of floods in August 2007, more than 100 inches of snow in winter 2007-08, and moist conditions in spring 2008. The flooding caused immediate evacuations and road closures and prolonged, extensive damages and losses associated with agriculture, businesses, housing, public health and human needs, and infrastructure and transportation. Record gage heights and streamflows occurred at 21 U.S. Geological Survey streamgages across southern Wisconsin from June 7 to June 21. Peak-gage-height data, peak-streamflow data, and flood probabilities are tabulated for 32 USGS streamgages in southern Wisconsin. Peak-gage-height and peak-streamflow data also are tabulated for three ungaged locations. Extensive flooding along the Baraboo River, Kickapoo River, Crawfish River, and Rock River caused particularly severe damages in nine communities and their surrounding areas: Reedsburg, Rock Springs, La Farge, Gays Mills, Milford, Jefferson, Fort Atkinson, Janesville, and Beloit. Flood-peak inundation maps and water-surface profiles were generated for the nine communities in a geographic information system by combining flood high-water marks with available 1-10-meter resolution digital-elevation-model data. The high-water marks used in the maps were a combination of those surveyed during the June flood by communities, counties, and Federal agencies and hundreds of additional marks surveyed in August by the USGS. The flood maps and profiles outline the extent and depth of flooding through the communities and are being used in ongoing (as of November 2008) flood response and recovery efforts by local, county, State, and Federal agencies.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2007

Identifying spatial variability of groundwater discharge in a wetland stream using a distributed temperature sensor

Discrete zones of groundwater discharge in a stream within a peat‐dominated wetland were identified on the basis of variations in streambed temperature using a distributed temperature sensor (DTS). The DTS gives measurements of the spatial (±1 m) and temporal (15 min) variation of streambed temperature over a much larger reach of stream (>800 m) than previous methods. Isolated temperature anomalies observed along the stream correspond to focused groundwater discharge zones likely caused by soil pipes within the peat. The DTS also recorded variations in the number of temperature anomalies, where higher numbers correlated well with a gaining reach identified by stream gauging. Focused zones of groundwater discharge showed essentially no change in position over successive measurement periods. Results suggest DTS measurements will complement other techniques (e.g., seepage meters and stream gauging) and help further improve our understanding of groundwater–surface water dynamics in wetland streams.

Water Resources Research↗

USGS2007

Dynamics of CFCs in northern temperate lakes and adjacent groundwater

Three dimictic lakes and one meromictic lake in and near the Trout Lake, Wisconsin, watershed were sampled to determine the variation of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) concentrations within the lakes. The lakes were sampled during stratified conditions, during fall turnover, and during ice cover. The results demonstrate a considerable variation in CFC concentrations and corresponding atmospheric mixing ratios in the lakes sampled, both with depth and season within a given lake, and across different lakes. CFC profiles and observed degradation were not related to the groundwater inflow rate and hence are likely the result of in‐lake processes influenced by CFC degradation in the (lake) water column, CFC degradation in the lake‐bed sediments, and gas exchange rates and the duration of turnover (turnover efficiency).

Water Resources Research↗

USGS2006

Variability of isotope and major ion chemistry in the Allequash Basin, Wisconsin

As part of ongoing research conducted at one of the U.S. Geological Survey's Water, Energy, and Biogeochem-ical Budgets sites, work was undertaken to describe the spatial and temporal variability of stream and ground water isotopic composition and cation chemistry in the Trout Lake watershed, to relate the variability to the watershed flow system, and to identify the linkages of geochemical evolution and source of water in the watershed. The results are based on periodic sampling of sites at two scales along Allequash Creek, a small headwater stream in northern Wisconsin. Based on this sampling, there are distinct water isotopic and geochemical differences observed at a smaller hillslope scale and the larger Allequash Creek scale. The variability was larger than expected for this simple watershed, and is likely to be seen in more complex basins. Based on evidence from multiple isotopes and stream chemistry, the flow system arises from three main source waters (terrestrial-, lake-, or wetland-derived recharge) that can be identified along any flowpath using water isotopes together with geochemical characteristics such as iron concentrations. The ground water chemistry demonstrates considerable spatial variability that depends mainly on the flow-path length and water mobility through the aquifer. Calcium concentrations increase with increasing flowpath length, whereas strontium isotope ratios increase with increasing extent of stagnation in either the unsaturated or saturated zones as waters move from source to sink. The flowpath distribution we identify provides important constraints on the calibration of ground water flow models such as that undertaken by Pint et al. (this issue).

Wisconsin↗

USGS2005

Bridge scour monitoring methods at three sites in Wisconsin

Of the nearly 11,500 bridges in Wisconsin, 89 have been assessed with critical scour conditions. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Wisconsin Department of Transportation, the Marathon County Highway Department, and the Jefferson County Highway Department, performed routine monitoring of streambed elevations for three bridges. Two monitoring approaches were employed: (1) manual monitoring using moderately simple equipment, and (2) automated monitoring, using moderately sophisticated electronic equipment. The results from all three sites demonstrate that both techniques can produce reasonable measurements of streambed elevation. The manual technique has a lower annual operating cost, and is useful for cases where documentation of long-term trends is desired. The automated technique has a higher annual operating cost and is useful for real-time monitoring of episodic events with short time durations.

Wisconsin↗

USGS2005

Effects of best-management practices in Otter Creek in the Sheboygan River Priority Watershed, Wisconsin, 1990-2002

The U.S. Geological Survey and the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources began a comprehensive, multidisciplinary evaluation-monitoring program in 1989 to assess the effectiveness of the Wisconsin Nonpoint Source Program. Hydrologic, water-quality, habitat, and fish data were collected at Otter Creek from 1990 to 2002 with the pre-BMP (best-management practice) period ending in September 1993 and the post-BMP period beginning in October 1999. BMPs installed in this basin included streambank protection and fencing, stream crossings, grade stabilization, buffer strips, various barnyard-runoff controls, nutrient management, and a low degree of upland BMPs. Reductions between pre- and post-BMP periods were detected in median concentrations of base-flow samples for total suspended solids and BOD5 but not for total phosphorus or dissolved ammonia nitrogen; fecal coliform concentrations in base-flow samples increased over the study period. Reductions in rainfall storm loads between the pre- and post-BMP periods during the non-vegetative season (November through May) were detected for all three constituents monitored (total suspended solids, total phosphorus, and dissolved ammonia nitrogen). Differences in rainfall storm loads of these three constituents for the vegetative season (June through October) were not detected. When considering rainfall data from the entire year, reductions in storm loads were detected for total suspended solids and dissolved ammonia nitrogen (reductions were estimated at 58 percent for total suspended solids and 41 percent for dissolved ammonia nitrogen). Annual reductions in rainfall storm loads for the non-vegetative season were estimated at 58 percent for total suspended solids, 48 percent for total phosphorus, and 41 percent for dissolved ammonia nitrogen. Habitat and fish data were collected each year of the study to track the effects of BMPs on stream habitat and fish communities. Final trend analysis was performed using habitat quality index scores, an index of biotic integrity, and some of the originally measured fish and habitat variables. Habitat was improved for stream segments that had either natural riparian buffer or where streambank fencing was installed, but not at the station where the riparian area was pasture and no streambank fencing was installed. The results also suggest that BMP implementation in Otter Creek substantially modified fish community structure, but the overall community quality was not improved.

Wisconsin↗

USGS2003

Effects of best-management practices in the Black Earth Creek Priority Watershed, Wisconsin, 1984-98

The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources and the U.S. Geological Survey began a comprehensive, multidisciplinary evaluation-monitoring program in 1989 to assess the effectiveness of the Wisconsin Nonpoint Source Program. Hydrologic and water-quality data were collected at Brewery and Garfoot Creeks in 1984 and 1985 (pre-best-management practices (BMPs) period) and 1997 and 1998 (post-BMP period). In rural areas, best-management practices may include conservation tillage, contour strip-cropping, streambank protection, and various barnyard-runoff controls. Water-quality samples were collected during base flow and storms. At Brewery Creek, no statistically significant differences in the median base flow water-quality concentrations between the pre- and post-BMP periods. At Garfoot Creek, the median suspended-sediment concentration at base flow decreased by 41 percent between the pre- and post-BMP periods and the median ammonia nitrogen concentration decreased by 67 percent. Both of these differences were statistically significant at the 0.05 (probability) level. For both Brewery and Garfoot Creeks, the median storm loads for suspended sediment, total phosphorus, and ammonia nitrogen were compared statistically by means of the Wilcoxon rank-sum test. This test also was applied to regression residuals for differences between the pre- and post-BMP periods. For Garfoot Creek, only the median load for ammonia nitrogen shows a statistically significant difference between the pre-and post-BMP periods. None of the median storm loads for Brewery Creek were statistically significant at the 0.05 level. The decrease of the regression residuals between the pre- and post-BMP periods for ammonia nitrogen at Brewery Creek and for total phosphorus and ammonia nitrogen at Garfoot Creek all were statistically significant at the 0.05 level. These reductions between the pre- and post-BMP periods likely are results of the installed BMPs. The effectiveness of the BMPs on water quality are watershed specific. The effectiveness of the practice will depend on the type, number, and location of the BMPs implemented.

Wisconsin↗

USGS2003

Flood-frequency characteristics of Wisconsin streams

Flood-frequency characteristics for 312 gaged sites on Wisconsin streams are presented for recurrence intervals of 2 to 100 years using flood-peak data collected through water year 2000. Equations of the relations between flood-frequency and drainage-basin characteristics were developed by multiple-regression analyses. Flood-frequency characteristics for ungaged sites on unregulated, rural streams can be estimated by use of these equations. The state was divided into five areas with similar physiographic characteristics. The most significant basin characteristics are drainage area, main-channel slope, soil permeability, storage, rainfall intensity, and forest cover. The standard error of prediction for the equation for the 100-year flood discharge ranges from 22 to 44 percent in the state. A graphical method for estimating flood-frequency characteristics of regulated streams was developed from the relation of discharge and drainage area. Graphs for the major regulated streams are presented.

Wisconsin↗

USGS2001

Evaluation of nonpoint-source contamination, Wisconsin: water year 1999

The objective of the watershed-management evaluation monitoring program in Wisconsin is to evaluate the effectiveness of best-management practices (BMPs) for controlling nonpoint-source pollution in rural and urban watersheds. This progress report provides a summary of the data collected by the U.S Geological Survey for the program and a discussion of the results from several different detailed analyses conducted within this program. A land-use and best-management-practice inventory is ongoing for each evaluation monitoring project to track the different sources of nonpointsource pollution in each watershed and to document implementation of best-management programs that may cause changes in the water quality of streams. Updated information is gathered each year, mapped, and stored in a geographic-information-system database. Summaries of BMP-implementation data collected through the 1999 water year are presented in this report. Suspended sediment and total phosphorus storm-load and annual-load data are summarized for eight rural sites. For all 8 rural sites a sufficient number of pre-BMP storm samples have been collected; for two of the sites (Brewery and Garfoot Creeks), a sufficient number of post-BMP storm samples have been collected to allow for a final assessment of the effectiveness of the BMPs. For the remaining sites, numerous transitional storm samples have been collected, but in all cases BMP implementation has lagged such that there are insufficient post-BMP storm samples for final analysis. For two sites (Rattlesnake and Kuenster Creeks) there are not enough planned BMPs to warrant further data collection. Continuous dissolved-oxygen data collected at 5 rural sites are summarized. In terms of instantaneous concentrations when comparing pre-BMP data to transitional and post-BMP data, the general trend is a reduction in the number of days that the dissolved oxygen concentration was less than the state standard. These results are anecdotal, however; the differences have not been rigorously tested statistically. For a level of dissolved oxygen sustained over a continuous hour, the results are mixed. In general the number of days with standard violations has decreased, but there are notable exceptions. For the four urban streams, the pre-BMP data were examined to determine the level of improvement that could potentially be detected with a statistical analysis. Regression analyses were performed relating constituent loads of suspended solids, total phosphorus and total copper to various independent variables, including seasonal terms and variables related to rainfall. On the basis of the residuals from the regressions, there is a wide range of potential change that could be detected with an analysis of pre- and post-BMP loads. This is likely a result of the high degree of variability in the data, particularly from site to site. For suspended solids, total phosphorus, and total recoverable copper the minimum detectable changes ranges from 20-80, 30-70 and 30-90 percent, respectively. For two of the eight rural streams (Rattlesnake and Kuenster Creeks) minimal BMP implementation has occurred, hence a comparison of pre- BMP and data collected after BMP implementation began is not warranted. For two other rural streams (Brewery and Garfoot Creeks), BMP implementation is complete. For the four remaining rural streams (Bower, Otter, Eagle, and Joos Valley Creeks), the pre-BMP load data were compared to the transitional data to determine if significant reductions in the loads have occurred as a result of the BMP implementation to date. For all sites, the actual constituent loads for suspended solids and total phosphorus exhibit no statistically significant reductions after BMP installation. Multiple regressions were used to remove some of the natural variability in the data. Based on the residual analysis, for Otter Creek, there is a significant difference in the suspended-solids regression residuals between the pre-BMP and transitional periods, indicating a potential reduction as a result of the BMP implementation after accounting for natural variability. For Joos Valley Creek, the residuals for suspended solids and total phosphorus both show a significant reduction after accounting for natural variability. It is possible that the other sites will also show statistically significant reductions in suspended solids and total phosphorus if additional BMPs are implemented.

Wisconsin↗

USGS2000

Trout Lake, Wisconsin: A water, energy, and biogeochemical budgets program site

The Trout Lake Watershed is in the Northern Highlands Lake District in north-central Wisconsin. The study area includes four subbasins with five lakes and two bog lakes. The objectives of the Trout Lake WEBB project are to (1) describe processes controlling water and solute fluxes in the Trout Lake watershed, (2) examine interactions among those processes and (3) improve the capability to predict changes in water and solute fluxes for a range of spatial and temporal scales (Elder and others, 1992).

Wisconsin↗

USGS1999

Characterizing hydrology and the importance of ground-water discharge in natural and constructed wetlands

Although considered the most important component for the establishment and persistence of wetlands, hydrology has been hard to characterize and linkages between hydrology and other environmental conditions are often poorly understood. In this work, methods for characterizing a wetland’s hydrology from hydrographs were developed, and the importance of ground water to the physical and geochemical conditions in the root zone was investigated. Detailed sampling of nearly continuous hydrographs showed that sites with greater ground-water discharge had higher water tables and more stable hydrographs. Subsampling of the continuous hydrograph failed to characterize the sites correctly, even though the wetland complex is located in a strong regional ground-water-discharge area. By comparing soil-moisture-potential measurements to the water-table hydrograph at one site, we noted that the amount of root-zone saturation was not necessarily driven by the water-table hydrograph but can be a result of other soil parameters (i.e., soil texture and associated capillary fringe). Ground-water discharge was not a significant determinant of maximum or average temperatures in the root zone. High ground-water discharge was associated with earliest date of thaw and shortest period of time that the root zone was frozen, however. Finally, the direction and magnitude of shallow ground-water flow was found to affect the migration and importance of a geochemical species. Areas of higher ground-water discharge had less downward penetration of CO 2 generated in the root zone. In contrast, biotically derived CO 2 was able to penetrate the deeper ground-water system in areas of ground-water recharge. Although ground-water flows are difficult to characterize, understanding these components is critical to the success of wetland restoration and creation efforts.

Wisconsin↗

USGS1995

Evaluation of nonpoint-source contamination, Wisconsin; selected streamwater-quality data, land-use and best-management practices inventory, and quality assurance and quality control, water year 1993

The objective of the watershed-management evaluation monitoring program in Wisconsin is to evaluate the effectiveness of the best-management practices (BMPs) for rural streams, urban streams, and urban storm sewers. This report is an annual summary of the data collected for the program and a report of the results from several different special studies conducted within this program. Suspended sediment and total phosphorus storm-load data are summarized for eight rural sites and suspended sediment, total phosphorus, total recoverable lead, total recoverable copper, total recoverable zinc, and total recoverable cadmium storm-load data are summarized for four urban sites. Dissolved-oxygen data is summarized and compared with Wisconsin's waterquality standards for summer 1993 for seven rural sites. The dissolved-oxygen concentrations declined to levels below these standards at least one time at all seven sites during summer 1993. Total-recoverable hardness concentrations were compared with dissolved-hardness concentrations at two urban streams and two urban storm sewers. Least-squared linear regressions resulted in stronger relations for low-flow conditions than for high-flow conditions, indicating that most hardness during low flow is dissolved hardness. Pesticide data are summarized for four urban sites and six rural sites. Herbicides were detected at urban and rural sites; whereas insecticides were detected only at urban sites. A land-use and best-management-practice inventory is ongoing for each evaluation monitoring project to track the different sources of nonpoint pollution in each watershed and to document implementation of best-management programs that may cause changes in water quality of streams. Updated information is gathered each year, mapped, and stored in a geographic-information-system data base. The quality-assurance/quality-control plan for the urban watershed-management evaluation program consisted of a series of blank samples. These blank samples were used to identify and isolate contamination by inorganic and organic components throughout the collection and processing of urban streamwater samples. A dissolved trace-metal contamination problem was identified and resolved by using different laboratory- supplied sample bottles. A special study was done to determine the effect of holding time on fecal coliform colony counts. A linear regression indicated that the mean decrease in colony counts over 72 hours was 8.2 percent per day. Results after 24 hours showed that colony counts increased in some samples and decreased in others.

Wisconsin↗

USGS1994

Statistical Techniques for Assessing water‐quality effects of BMPs

Little has been published on the effectiveness of various management practices in small rural lakes and streams at the watershed scale. In this study, statistical techniques were used to test for changes in water‐quality data from watersheds where best management practices (BMPs) were implemented. Reductions in data variability due to climate and seasonality were accomplished through the use of regression methods. This study discusses the merits of using storm‐mass‐transport data as a means of improving the ability to detect BMP effects on stream‐water quality. Statistical techniques were applied to suspended‐sediment records from three rural watersheds in Illinois for the period 1981–84. None of the techniques identified changes in suspended sediment, primarily because of the small degree of BMP implementation and because of potential errors introduced through the estimation of storm‐mass transport. A Monte Carlo sensitivity analysis was used to determine the level of discrete change that could be detected for each watershed. In all cases, the use of regressions improved the ability to detect trends. Read More: http://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(1994)120:2(334)

Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering↗

USGS1992

Water, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budgets (WEBB) program: Data availability and research at the Northern Temperate Lakes site in north-central Wisconsin

More than three thousand kettle lakes, widely dispersed within a mixed temperate forest ecosystem, are predominant features of the Northern Highland area of north-central Wisconsin. A hydrological and biogeochemical investigation of seven of these lakes and their watershed area is currently in progress as part of the Water, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budgets (WEBB) program of the U.S. Geological Survey. The objectives of the overall WEBB program are to: (1) improve understanding of processes controlling water, energy, and biogeochemical fluxes in freshwater systems, the interactions among those processes, and their relations to climatic variables; and (2) improve the capability to predict freshwater, energy, and biogeochemical budgets over a range of spatial and temporal scales. The focus of the WEBB project in Wisconsin is hydrologic research in the Northern Temperate Lakes (NTL) area of the state. Based on the premise that an understanding of hydrologic and biogeochemical cycles in the watershed is predicated on a thorough understanding of the individual components that control the water flow, the project involves a detailed study of the hydrologic budget, including the roles of rainfall, streamflow, ground water, and flow in the unsaturated zone. It also involves investigation of ground-water/ surface-water interactions. The objectives of the Northern Temperate Lakes WEBB project are to: (1) describe processes controlling water and solute fluxes in the NTL watersheds; (2) examine interactions among those processes and their relations to climatic variables; and (3) improve the capability to predict changes in water and solute fluxes for a range of spatial and temporal scales. A variety of procedures will be used to address the objectives of the project including: installation of piezometers, lysimeters, stream-gaging sites, precipitation collectors, climate-monitoring instruments; analysis of transport of nutrients and other solutes through the system; analysis of changes in isotopic composition of water; and temperature profiling. The implementation of these procedures is described in this report. The NTL-WEBB study area includes seven lakes that are also the site of a Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) project, sponsored by the National Science Foundation. This project incorporates diverse research investigations conducted by faculty and research associates of the University of Wisconsin-Madison. The research orientation of NTL-LTER is principally toward aquatic ecology and geochemistry of the lakes. The WEBB research plan, with its emphasis on hydrologic processes in the lake watersheds, is designed to complement and enhance the LTER work.

Wisconsin↗

USGS1991

Accuracy of selected techniques for estimating ice-affected streamflow

This paper compares the accuracy of selected techniques for estimating streamflow during ice‐affected periods. The techniques are classified into two categories—subjective and analytical—depending on the degree of judgment required. Discharge measurements have been made at three streamflow‐gauging sites in Iowa during the 1987–88 winter and used to establish a baseline streamflow record for each site. Using data based on a simulated six‐week field‐trip schedule, selected techniques are used to estimate discharge during the ice‐affected periods. For the subjective techniques, three hydrographers have independently compiled each record. Three measures of performance are used to compare the estimated streamflow records with the baseline streamflow records: the average discharge for the ice‐affected period, and the mean and standard deviation of the daily errors. Based on average ranks for three performance measures and the three sites, the analytical and subjective techniques are essentially comparable. For two of the three sites, Kruskal‐Wallis one‐way analysis of variance detects significant differences among the three hydrographers for the subjective methods, indicating that the subjective techniques are less consistent than the analytical techniques. The results suggest analytical techniques may be viable tools for estimating discharge during periods of ice effect, and should be developed further and evaluated for sites across the United States.

Journal of Hydraulic Engineering↗

USGS1988

General two‐point method for Determining velocity in open channel

The generally accepted procedure is to average velocity measurements at 0. 2D and 0. 8D, measured vertically from the water surface,or alternatively to measure velocity at a position equal to 0. 6D, where D is the total depth of flow. In some situations, one may wish to measure at depths other than 0. 2D and 0. 8D. For instance, a temporary stream gage may be continuously monitoring velocity with two probes located at fixed vertical positions. As the total depth changes, the relative measurement position changes. This paper presents a general two-point method that can be used to determine the depth-averaged velocity when measurements at two arbitrary but known depths are available.

Journal of Hydraulic Engineering↗