SAFOD Phase III Core sampling and data management at the Gulf Coast repository
[No abstract available]
Scientific Drilling↗
Geology topics
D. Lockner
Publications and source records attributed to D. Lockner.
Using drill cutting separates to estimate the strength of narrow shear zones at SAFOD
[1] A technique is presented for estimating frictional strength of narrow shear zones based on hand selection of drillhole cuttings separates. Tests were conducted on cuttings from the SAFOD scientific drillhole near Parkfield, California. Since cuttings are mixed with adjacent material as they travel up the drillhole, these fault-derived separates give a better representation of the frictional properties of narrow features than measurements from the bulk material alone. Cuttings from two shear zones (one an active trace of the San Andreas fault) contain a significant weight percent of clay-rich grains that exhibit deformation-induced slickensides. In addition, cuttings from the active SAF trace contain around 1% serpentine. Coefficients of friction for clay-rich and serpentine grains were 0.3–0.5 and 0.4–0.45, respectively. These values are around 0.12 lower than the friction coefficient of the corresponding bulk cuttings, providing an improved estimate of the frictional strength of the San Andreas fault.
Geophysical Research Letters↗
Rapid fluid disruption: A source for self-potential anomalies on volcanoes
Self-potential (SP) anomalies observed above suspected magma reservoirs, dikes, etc., on various volcanoes (Kilauea, Hawaii; Mount Unzen, Japan; Piton de la Fournaise, Reunion Island, Miyake Jima, Japan) result from transient surface electric fields of tens of millivolts per kilometer and generally have a positive polarity. These SP anomalies are usually attributed to electrokinetic effects where properties controlling this process are poorly constrained. We propose an alternate explanation that contributions to electric fields of correct polarity should be expected from charge generation by fluid vaporization/disruption. As liquids are vaporized or removed as droplets by gas transport away from hot dike intrusions, both charge generation and local increase in electrical resistivity by removal of fluids should occur. We report laboratory observations of electric fields in hot rock samples generated by pulses of fluid (water) through the rock at atmospheric pressure. These indicate the relative amplitudes of rapid fluid disruption (RFD) potentials and electrokinetic potentials to be dramatically different and the signals are opposite in sign. Above vaporization temperatures, RFD effects of positive sign in the direction of gas flow dominate, whereas below these temperatures, effects of negative sign dominate. This suggests that the primary contribution to observed self-potential anomalies arises from gas-related charge transport processes at temperatures high enough to produce vigorous boiling and vapor transport. At lower temperatures, the primary contribution is from electrokinetic effects modulated perhaps by changing electrical resistivity and RFD effects from high-pressure but low-temperature CO2 and SO2 gas flow ripping water molecules from saturated crustal rocks. If charge generation is continuous, as could well occur above a newly emplaced dike, positive static potentials will be set up that could be sustained for many years, and the simplest method for identifying these hot, active regions would be to identify the SP anomalies they generate.
Hawai'i↗
Frictional strength and velocity-dependence of serpentine gouges under hydrothermal conditions and their seismogeological implications
The velocity - dependence of frictional strength of serpentine gouges has been measured at constant normal stress of 110 MPa, pore pressure of 10 MPa, temperature 25, 100 and 200??C , and at sliding rate ranging from 0. 001 to 10??m/s. At 25??C, the coefficient of friction of chrysotile gouge is very low (?????0. 2-0. 25), while lizardite and antigorite gouge are much stronger, with ?????0. 39 and 0. 45, respectively. The frictional strengths of chrysotile and antigorite gouges change little with a temperature increase to 200??C, whereas the strength of lizardite gouge increases substantially with increasing temperature. At 25??C, all three gouges show a transition from weak velocity weakening at high slip rates to velocity strengthening at low slip rates. With increasing temperature, the velocity dependence of each gouge shifts towards more positive values, especially at high slip rates. Based on this study and previous results, we suggest that the presence of serpentine in the fault zone may contribute to the occurrence of stable creep rather than earthquakes, but this effect may be limited to shallow depths. Although chrysotile is one of the weakest rock - forming minerals, it is still too strong to explain the weakness of the San Andreas fault deduced from heat flow data.
Dizhen Dizhi↗
A two-stage model of fracture of rocks
In this paper we propose a two-stage model of rock fracture. In the first stage, cracks or local regions of failure are uncorrelated occur randomly throughout the rock in response to loading of pre-existing flaws. As damage accumulates in the rock, there is a gradual increase in the probability that large clusters of closely spaced cracks or local failure sites will develop. Based on statistical arguments, a critical density of damage will occur where clusters of flaws become large enough to lead to larger-scale failure of the rock (stage two). While crack interaction and cooperative failure is expected to occur within clusters of closely spaced cracks, the initial development of clusters is predicted based on the random variation in pre-existing Saw populations. Thus the onset of the unstable second stage in the model can be computed from the generation of random, uncorrelated damage. The proposed model incorporates notions of the kinetic (and therefore time-dependent) nature of the strength of solids as well as the discrete hierarchic structure of rocks and the flaw populations that lead to damage accumulation. The advantage offered by this model is that its salient features are valid for fracture processes occurring over a wide range of scales including earthquake processes. A notion of the rank of fracture (fracture size) is introduced, and criteria are presented for both fracture nucleation and the transition of the failure process from one scale to another.
Pure and Applied Geophysics↗
The role of acoustic emission in the study of rock fracture
The development of faults and shear fracture systems over a broad range of temperature and pressure and for a variety of rock types involves the growth and interaction of microcracks. Acoustic emission (AE), which is produced by rapid microcrack growth, is a ubiquitous phenomenon associated with brittle fracture and has provided a wealth of information regarding the failure process in rock. This paper reviews the successes and limitations of AE studies as applied to the fracture process in rock with emphasis on our ability to predict rock failure. Application of laboratory AE studies to larger scale problems related to the understanding of earthquake processes is also discussed. In this context, laboratory studies can be divided into the following categories. 1) Simple counting of the number of AE events prior to sample failure shows a correlation between AE rate and inelastic strain rate. Additional sorting of events by amplitude has shown that AE events obey the power law frequency-magnitude relation observed for earthquakes. These cumulative event count techniques are being used in conjunction with damage mechanics models to determine how damage accumulates during loading and to predict failure. 2) A second area of research involves the location of hypocenters of AE source events. This technique requires precise arrival time data of AE signals recorded over an array of sensors that are essentially a miniature seismic net. Analysis of the spatial and temporal variation of event hypocenters has improved our understanding of the progression of microcrack growth and clustering leading to rock failure. Recently, fracture nucleation and growth have been studied under conditions of quasi-static fault propagation by controlling stress to maintain constant AE rate. 3) A third area of study involves the analysis of full waveform data as recorded at receiver sites. One aspect of this research has been to determine fault plane solutions of AE source events from first motion data. These studies show that in addition to pure tensile and double couple events, a significant number of more complex event types occur in the period leading to fault nucleation. 4) P and S wave velocities (including spatial variations) and attenuation have been obtained by artificially generating acoustic pulses which are modified during passage through the sample. ?? 1993.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining↗
An example of slip instability resulting from displacement-varying strength
A rock cylinder, containing a clay-filled sawcut making an angle of 30?? to the sample axis, was deformed at constant confining and pore pressures and constant remote shortening rate. The sawcut surfaces contained a series of regularly spaced ridges and grooves oriented perpendicular to the direction of shear. The interaction of these grooved surfaces resulted in a sliding strength which varied periodically with displacement. By varying the effective machine stiffness through the use of an electronic feedback circuit, a range of stable and unstable slip behavior was achieved. In this way, we examined fault slip behavior which was dominated by displacement-dependent strength. ?? 1990 Birkha??user Verlag.
Pure and Applied Geophysics PAGEOPH↗
Shear and tension hydraulic fractures in low permeability rocks
Laboratory hydrofracture experiments were performed on triaxially stressed specimens of oil shale and low-permeability granite. The results show that either shear or tension fractures could develop depending on the level of differentials stress, even in specimens containing preexisting fractures. With 1 kb of confining pressure and differential stress greater than 2kb, hydraulic fluid diffusion into the specimens reduced the effective confining pressure until failure occurred by shear fracture. Below 2kb of differential stress, tension fractures occurred. These results suggest that hydraulic fracturing in regions of significant tectonic stress may produce shear rather than tension fractures. In this case in situ stress determinations based on presumed tension fractures would lead to erroneous results. ?? 1977 Birkha??user Verlag.
Pure and Applied Geophysics PAGEOPH↗